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DEPARTMENT  OF  THE 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIO1 


V1  •*'     ^  *  $> 
OF  THE 


TREASURE  HUNTING 
of  TODAY 


AND 


CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS 

By  ROBERT  E.  ROSE 

FORMERLY  ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  CHEMISTRY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WASHINGTON 


Treasure  Hunting  of  Today 


Every  one,  every  man  and  every  woman,  every  boy  and  every  girl, 
has  let  his  or  her  fancy  stray  at  times  and  wished  for  power  over  the 
matter  of  the  world ;  has  wished  for  a  magic  wand  that  would  transform 
one  thing  into  another;  for  the  philosopher's  stone  which  would  turn 
the  common  metals  into  gold;  for  the  subtle  elixir  by  which  life  could 
be  prolonged  as  perpetual  youth. 

The  pleasure  of  reading  the  wonderful  stories  of  the  Arabian  Nights 
is  in  large  part  the  result  of  the  stimulation  that  comes  to  the  imagina- 
tion and  leaves  us  trying  to  picture  what  we  would  do  had  we  Alad- 
din's lamp  or  did  we  know  the  magic  password  to  hiding  places  of  un- 
told treasures,  gold,  sapphires,  pearls  and  rubies. 

In  the  same  way  the  stories  of  the  blood-thirsty  buccaneers  of  the 
Spanish  Main  leave,  beside  their  interest  as  yarns  of  breathless  action, 
a  haunting  feeling  that  there  must  be  treasure  to  be  found  and  that 
this  possibility  lends  a  certain  excitement  to  life's  chances. 

Of  course  this  feeling,  which  is  so  strong  upon  us  when  we  finish 
reading  one  of  these  tales  of  adventure  in  the  quiet  of  the  evening,  is  apt 
to  fade  after  a  sleep,  and  in  the  light  of  the  morning  the  romance  seems 
to  vanish ;  but  down  in  our  hearts  we  always  have  with  us  that  longing 
that  makes  us  treasure-hunters. 

While  all  mankind  has  always  longed  for  such  powers,  a  few  have 
gone  treasure-hunting.  They  have  sought  to  read  the  riddle  of  the 
code,  to  learn  which  has  meant  controlling  the  forces  of  nature.  They 
have  worked  for  treasure,  but  not  treasure  of  gold  and  jewels;  they 
have  sought  real  knowledge,  believing  that  to  know  anything  for  cer- 
tain which  no  one  knew  before  and  to  tell  others  of  it,  is  one  of  the 
best  ways  to  serve  the  world;  wisdom  to  them  has  been  the  supreme 
treasure. 

These  men,  and  women,  too,  have  to  those  who  wished  to  be  up  and 
doing  seemed  to  be  wasting  their  time. 

A  Captain  Kidd  could  see  no  earthly  use  in  trying  to  find  out  the 
real  nature  of  a  drop  of  water.  Are  not  the  oceans  full  of  water, 
billions  upon  billions  of  drops?  But  rubies  are  scarce  and  they  can  be 
stolen.  Now  the  time  has  come  when  the  men  who  studied  the  drop  of 
water  can  laugh  at  the  Captain  Kidds  because  by  their  studies  they 
have  learned  to  make  real  rubies,  and  sapphires,  and  emeralds. 

Those  who  have  learned  the  secret  of  the  transformation  of  matter 
and  energy,  who  have  done  in  very  fact  those  things  which  the 

[31 

444095 


TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 


alchemists  and:  the- magicians  of  old  hoped  to  do,  and  in  addition  a  great 
many  things  which  the  wise  men  of  the  past  never  dreamed  of — those 
men  and  women  have  been  so  busy  that  they  have  only  had  time  to  tell 
each  other  of  their  results  in  order  to  push  ahead  more  quickly  into  the 
darkness  of  the  cavern  of  the  many  treasures.  They  have  had  to  make 
a  language  to  describe  the  things  they  have  discovered,  and  they  have 
not  taken  time  to  tell  everybody  what  their  words  mean. 

Thus  it  comes  about  that  humanity  has  learned  to  share  in  the 
treasures  without  understanding  where  they  came  from  or  to  whose 
efforts  they  were  due.  Still  less  is  there  any  understanding  of  the  magic 
transformations  and  the  fact  that  they  are  magical  in  results  only,  the 
methods  being  an  open  book. 

The  hiding-places  of  modern  treasures  are  so  strange  that  they  can 
not  be  found  by  chance : 

Silk  hidden  in  the  fibre  of  the  cotton;  exquisite  dyes  and 
perfumes  in  a  pot  of  tar;  bright  metal  in  common  clay;  the 
strength  of  the  volcano  in  saltpetre;  silver  in  lead;  deadly 
poisons  and  healing  medicines  in  a  lump  of  coal ;  food  in  the  air. 

It  is  worth  while  to  learn  a  little  of  the  way  in  which  the  seekers 
after  knowledge  have  come  to  gain  this  power  over  matter;  it  is  worth 
while  because  it  helps  us  to  appreciate  what  the  mind  can  do,  and  it 
also  is  worth  while  because  the  treasures  discovered  are  outnumbered 
by  those  still  hidden,  and  some  of  us  may  be  able  to  take  a  share  in 
adding  to  man's  power  over  matter.  It  is  impossible  to  say  where  next 
the  treasure  may  be  found:  A  heap  of  sawdust;  is  it  merely  so  much 
rubbish,  or  is  there  hidden  in  the  little  fragments  of  wood  something  of 
very  real  use,  to  find  which  would  bring  honor  and  wealth  besides 
aiding  all  mankind  ? 

In  the  past  it  is  in  just  such  places  that  wonders  have  been  found. 

Play  or  work,  real  knowledge  comes  only  of  close  attention,  though 
not  always  consciously  given.  When  you  watch  a  game  of  football  or 
baseball  you  do  not  realize  that  you  are  doing  the  hardest  kind  of 
studying,  but  if  you  are  really  interested  you  most  certainly  are,  and 
only  the  players  are  studying  harder. 

There  are  many  things  which  can  not  be  understood  unless  they  are 
raken  apart  and  each  portion  examined  separately.  In  general,  to  study 
an  object,  to  be  able  to  use  every  sense  upon  it,  it  is  best  to  simplify  it ; 
10  make  an  engine,  one  must  know  the  parts  of  which  it  is  composed 
and  how  they  are  set  up;  to  make  a  dress,  it  is  necessary  to  know  of 
what  each  part  is  to  be  made  and  how  each  piece  is  to  be  cut.  Following 
this  plan,  the  men  who  have  grown  to  be  masters  of  human  destiny  have 
never  been  content  to  take  anything  in  hand  without  trying  to  simplify 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  5 

it  in  order  to  understand  it.  The  chemist  has  always  insisted  on  know- 
ing of  what  things  are  made,  and  the  physicist  how  they  are  constructed. 
What  is  there  about  the  structure  of  air  that  makes  it  act  like  a  spring 
in  a  pneumatic  tire?  Such  a  question  the  physicist  asks.  It  may  count 
a  small  matter,  but  in  this  case  to  be  able  to  answer  is  to  know  the 
structure  of  all  things.  The  chemist  keeps  asking:  Can  rust  be  taken 
apart?  What  is  it  made  of?  Is  there  anything  in  the  world  that  can- 
not be  made  simpler?  Such  questions  seem  far  from  the  practical 
needs  of  every-day  life,  but  by  putting  them  and  experimenting  until 
the  answers  were  found  man  has  learned  wonders. 

Draw  a  breath.  You  have  inhaled  3,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 
little  particles  of  air,  a  jostling,  pushing  crowd  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen 
particles  so  crowded  that  each  one  bumps  his  neighbors  and  is  bumped 
back  five  billion  times  every  second,  each  trying  to  rush  1,500  feet  in 
that  time.  Exhale,  and  out  rush  an  equal  number  of  molecules,  but 
120,000,000,000,000,000,000  oxygen  particles  that  went  in  do  not  come 
out,  while  their  places  are  taken  by  carbon  dioxide  and  water  that  came 
out  of  your  body.  Weigh  the  crowd  coming  out  and  it  will  be  found 
heavier  than  that  which  went  in.  You  are  losing  weight  with  every 
breath.  Drink  a  glass  of  water  and  you  have  swallowed  1,865,000,000,- 
000,000,000,000,000  molecules  of  water.  Somehow,  out  of  all  the 
myriads  of  molecules  that  you  eat  and  breathe,  you  get  yourself  made 
and  keep  your  body  running. 

All  matter  is  composed  of  such  trifling  particles.  A  ton  of  steel  is 
made  up  of  fragments  so  minute  that  a  thousand  million  million  are 
needed  to  form  the  point  of  a  needle.  But  each  kind  of  matter,  if 
different  under  like  conditions,  is  composed  of  different  molecule  units. 
Units  of  water,  units  of  iron,  of  sugar,  of  salt,  of  diamond,  of  sulfur. 
Small  as  these  molecules  are  they  are  usually  not  simple  but  are  com- 
posed of  simpler  particles,  the  atoms.  Can  you  imagine  the  physicist 
and  chemist  pulling  matter  to  pieces,  nearly  hopeless  at  the  complexity, 
but  still  hoping  to  reach  an  understanding? 

Millions  of  different  kinds  of  substances,  millions  of  different  kinds 
of  molecules,  and,  if  these  are  complex,  then  tons  of  millions  of  dif- 
ferent atoms.  That  was  to  be  expected;  but  in  reality  it  was  found 
that  there  are  only  some  80  different  kinds  of  atoms,  and  that  a  fourth  of 
that  many  form  the  great  majority  of  molecules.  Moreover,  rarely  are 
there  more  than  three  or  four  different  kinds  of  atoms  in  any  one  kind 
of  molecule. 

Have  patience  for  a  moment ;  we  are  very  near  the  secret  of  the  trans- 
formation of  matter. 

If  each  substance  is  composed  of  characteristic  molecules,  and  there 


6  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

are  millions  of  different  kinds,  and  if  the  only  things  in  molecules  are 
atoms,  and  there  are  only  80  of  these,  then  the  difference  in  molecules 
must  be  the  outcome  of  either  the  number,  arrangement,  or  kind,  of 
atom,  and  since  there  are  so  few  different  kinds  of  atoms,  the  number 
and  arrangement  must  be  the  chief  thing.  Then,  and  this  is  the  great 
secret,  to  learn  how  to  rearrange  atoms  is  to  learn  how  to  transform 
matter. 

An  analogy  may  make  the  condition  clearer.  There  are  millions  of 
buildings  in  this  world,  but  there  are  not  millions  of  building  materials 
used.  The  difference  between  one  structure  and  the  other  is  caused  by 
the  arrangement,  first ;  by  the  material,  second ;  a  castle  may  be  of  some 
masonry,  so  may  a  hovel. 

The  chemist  has  learned  to  know  the  bricks,  stone,  and  mortar  of 
molecules,  and  he  has  learned  how  to  duplicate  nature's  molecule- 
structures  and  also  to  make  new  ones,  though  in  every  case  he  is 
limited  by  the  properties  of  his  building-materials,  the  atoms,  just  as 
the  builder  is  who  cannot  erect  a  sky-scraper  of  bricks  or  lumber. 

To  measure  the  progress  of  the  past  hundred  years  which  has  come 
of  the  advance  of  chemistry,  it  is  well  to  contrast  the  present  with  the 
past.  Because  of  its  great  importance  to  everyone,  the  supply  of  food 
may  serve  as  an  example. 

Let  us  go  back  to  mediaeval  times  and  assume  that  a  chemist  with 
his  present  knowledge  is  a  citizen  of  a  beleaguered  castle.  The  enemy 
have  surrounded  the  walls  on  all  sides  and  the  garrison  and  civil  popu- 
lation, swelled  by  the  peasants  from  the  country-side,  are  beginning 
to  worry  about  the  food-supply.  The  chieftain  would  call  in  his 
chemist,  remembering  that  this  unassuming  man  had  suggested  certain 
precautions  to  be  taken  in  case  of  siege. 

"Sire,"  the  chemist  would  say,  "within  these  walls  we  have  a 
generous  waterfall  which  never  dries  and  is  fed  from  a  spring ;  it  is  out 
of  the  clutches  of  our  foes;  we  have  abundant  wood,  and  coal,  and  the 
air  no  enemy  can  take  from  us.  In  addition,  because  you  had  faith  in 
my  wisdom,  we  have  many  tons  of  paraffin,  much  sulfur  and  lime.  You 
will  remember  that  these  things  I  said  would  be  necessary  for  my  plans 
in  case  of  siege.  Our  bins  are  full  of  dried  potatoes,  harvested  and 
dried  when  our  corn  failed.  I,  on  my  part,  have  certain  simple  salts, 
such  as  the  phosphate  of  potash.  Because  of  the  diligence  of  my 
servants,  all  the  necessary  equipment  is  in  readiness;  therefore  I  will 
obey  your  request  and  feed  the  people." 

Then  would  ensue  a  busy  scene.  Certain  men  would  take  some  of 
the  billets  of  wood  and  convert  them  into  sawdust,  using  a  machine  run 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  7 

by  the  power  of  the  waterfall.  Others  would  burn  some  of  the  sulfur 
and  lead  the  fumes  through  a  contrivance  like  a  jacketed  length  of  iron 
pipe  in  which  was  some  platinum  supported  on  asbestos.  In  a  little 
while  white  fumes  would  be  formed  and  these  would  be  caused  to  unite 
with  water  to  form  sulfuric  acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol. 

Sawdust  and  sulphuric  acid  would  be  put  into  a  great  vessel  and 
steam  injected,  the  boiler  being  heated  by  the  burning  of  some  of  the 
coal.  Then  cold  water  would  be  thrown  in  to  stop  the  action  of  the 
acid.  The  sawdust  would  look  about  the  same,  but  there  would  be  less 
of  it  and  the  acid  liquid  would  contain  sugar  made  from  the  sawdust. 
Lime  would  take  out  the  acid  and  part  of  the  filtered  liquor  would  be 
evaporated  to  a  sticky  sweet  mass  by  no  means  unpalatable,  being,  in 
fact,  something  like  corn  syrup;  that  would  go  into  the  food  stores  as  a 
sugar  substitute — not  very  sweet  but  useful. 

Here  the  interest  turns  to  another  group  who  are  busy  on  a  very 
different  task.  They  are  liquifying  air,  and  allowing  the  liquid  to  boil, 
which  it  does  at  383°  below  zero.  The  gas  coming  off  first  would 
be  nitrogen  and  it  would  be  stored  in  special  gas  holders.  The  remain- 
ing oxygen  would  also  be  stored. 

Yet  another  group  would  be  making  hydrogen  and  oxygen  from  water 
by  means  of  electric  current  obtained  from  the  waterfall.  The  hydrogen 
they  would  pass  on  to  those  who  had  made  the  nitrogen,  who  would 
mix  two  gases  in  a  definite  ratio  and  heat  them  in  a  vessel  under 
pressure  with  some  uranium.  This  would  transform  the  mixture  into 
ammonia.  Some  of  this  would  be  reserved,  the  rest  burned  to  nitric  acid 
in  another  special  apparatus.  Nitric  acid  and  ammonia  would  be 
brought  together  to  give  ammonium  nitrate. 

By  this  time  the  populace  would  say:  "Truly  the  chemist  does  won- 
derful things  but  we  see  our  dinners  no  nearer.  We  will  have  patience, 
however,  and  give  him  every  help;  if  he  fails  we  all  die;  but  we  will 
do  that  anyway  if  food  is  not  forthcoming  and  the  castle  falls." 

In  the  meantime  great  vats  would  be  filled  with  the  sweetish  liquor 
from  the  sawdust  and  some  of  the  ammonium  nitrate  added  to  this,  also 
a  very  little  potassium  phosphate.  The  liquor  would  be  sterilized  by 
steam,  and  while  it  was  being  cooled  the  chemist  would  hurry  to  the 
house  of  his  intimate  friend  the  biologist.  (Scientists  of  different  kinds 
always  have  to  work  together  to  get  good  results. ) 

"Good  Worthy,"  he  would  say,  "all  is  in  readiness.  The  truth  of 
your  discoveries,  which  I  doubt  not  at  all,  will  be  tested  in  practice." 

The  biologist  would  take  him  to  a  kind  of  ice  box  and  point  proudly 
to  certain  gray  masses  therein. 

"Behold,  Sir  Chemist,  the  little  servants  are  ready.     Carefully  have 


8  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

I  reared  them.  They  are  no  ordinary  yeast  cells,  but  wonder  workers 
that  will  make  meat  for  the  people  out  of  ammonium  nitrate  which 
you  make  from  air  and  water.  I  will  gather  some  up  to  take  with  us." 

Then  would  they  put  the  special  yeast  into  the  sawdust  sugar  syrup 
with  the  ammonium  nitrate  in  it.  The  yeast  would  grow  apace  and  in 
a  short  time  it  would  be  gathered  and  pressed  free  of  liquid.  It  would 
then  be  treated  by  the  chemist  in  such  a  way  that  the  curious  taste 
would  be  replaced  by  a  pleasanter  one.  Then  it  would  be  given  to  the 
people  to  eat  in  place  of  meat,  being  very  nourishing  even  though  made 
from  air  and  sawdust. 

"But,"  the  people  would  object,  "your  meat  is  without  fat,  and  fat 
we  must  have  if  we  are  to  do  hard  work." 

"Have  patience,"  the  chemist  would  reply,  "the  fat  is  being  made,  it 
isn't  quite  ready  today,  but  there  will  be  plenty  from  tomorrow  on." 

And  he  would  keep  his  word ;  he  would  take  some  more  of  the  sugar 
water  made  from  shavings  and  add  mineral  salts  to  it,  then  he  would 
call  upon  the  worthy  biologist  once  more,  saying: 

"Gentle  sir;  I  am  now  ready  for  your  glycerine  fungus." 

"Good  colleague,  again  am  I  ready,  having  forseen  your  request. 
Here  is  my  noble  race  of  plants  which  convert  sugar  into  glycerine." 

Together  they  would  do  all  that  was  necessary  and  the  sugar  would 
disappear  from  the  syrup,  its  place  being  taken  by  glycerine  among 
other  things.  The  glycerine  would  be  obtained  pure  by  distillation. 

In  the  meantime,  great  big  lumps  of  paraffin,  which  the  chemist  had 
caused  to  be  brought  within  the  walls,  would  be  heated  in  closed  vessels 
with  some  of  the  oxygen  obtained  from  the  water  when  the  hydrogen 
was  made.  The  paraffin  would  turn  into  a  sour  mass  which  in  the 
chemist's  hands  could  be  purified  and  would  yield  acids  which,  when 
combined  with  the  glycerine  made  from  sawdust,  would  give  fats  like 
butter,  lard,  or  tallow. 

Thus,  you  see,  the  citizens  and  garrison  could  be  fed  on  meat,  fat, 
and  sugar.  The  starch  of  their  diet  would  have  to  come  from  the 
dried  potatoes,  which  you  will  remember  were  stored  at  the  chemist's 
suggestion.  Thus  the  beleagured  could  hold  out. 

This  sounds  like  a  fairy  tale,  mere  idle  imagining  of  what  might  be. 
It  is  not  that.  A  great  nation  faced  by  famine,  helped  feed  her  people 
by  such  means.  What  was  done  sufficed  to  show  that  there  is  nothing 
to  prevent  the  perfection  of  methods  which  will  add  to  the  food 
resources  of  mankind  enormously.  Great  vats  will  take  the  place  of 
the  cattle  ranges,  yeast  cells  that  of  the  cattle.  It  is  true  that  the 
little  yeast  plants  seem  insignificant,  but  they  mature  in  a  few  hours  and 
they  multiply  at  an  enormous  rate.  Already  yeast  food  factories 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  9 

created  during  the  stress  of  war  are  operating  in  time  of  peace.  They 
will  increase  in  numbers  and  in  them  will  be  made  better,  more  excel- 
lent products  as  the  industry  develops. 

This  has  come  because  the  path  of  the  magician  has  been  abandoned 
and  his  place  taken  by  men  and  women  who  know  how  molecules  are 
made. 

If  everything  you  touch  were  to  tell  you  whether  or  not  it  owes  its 
existence  to  the  chemist  you  would  learn  very  soon  of  the  tremendous 
importance  of  the  man  who  makes  molecules. 

Having  spoken  of  food,  a  start  may  be  made  in  the  kitchen. 

As  you  strike  a  match  it  calls  out  that  its  head  is  made  from  bones 
and  sulfur  and  fish  glue,  under  the  chemist's  direction,  that  its  stick 
is  soaked  in  alum  to  prevent  it  glowing,  alum  made  from  a  mineral 
called  Bauxite. 

As  the  gas  is  turned  on  it  whistles  that  it  is  made  from  coal,  and 
water,  and  coke,  and  that  its  making  is  controlled  by  the  chemist.  The 
gas  range  goes  back  to  the  iron  ore  of  Lake  Michigan  from  which  it  was 
made  in  the  Pittsburgh  blast  furnaces.  Again  a  transformation  of 
matter.  The  aluminum  kettle  comes  from  aluminum  oxide  dissolved  in 
molten  cryolite  from  Greenland  and  decomposed  by  tremendous  electric 
current  generated  by  the  falling  water  of  Niagara. 

So  far  everything  handled  has  been  matter  made  by  the  chemist  and 
not  found  in  nature. 

If  the  task  in  the  kitchen  is  to  make  some  biscuits,  then  it  would  seem 
that  the  actual  materials  to  be  cooked,  would  be  beyond  the  range  of 
applied  chemistry.  But  the  chances  are  that  the  flour  comes  from  wheat 
that  was  disinfected  with  formaldehyde  and  fertilized  with  phosphate. 
The  flour  itself  was  bleached  chemically.  The  milk  used  is  untouched 
by  the  chemist,  except  to  test  it,  but  the  salt  is  prepared  under  his 
supervision.  The  baking  powder  is  entirely  his  handiwork.  He  made 
the  bicarbonate  in  it  from  ordinary  salt  and  the  alum  or  phosphate  from 
mineral  matter.;  if  the  powder  is  made  from  tartaric  acid,  then  he  has 
to  admit  that  he  has  not  found  a  cheap  way  of  making  that,  but  he  will 
have  one  soon,  and  then  that  too  will  be  made.  The  tin  the  baking 
powder  is  in  is  also  an  entirely  artificial  product. 

The  truth  is  that  the  shadow  of  the  chemist  is  over  all  that  comes 
into  the  household  for  food.  If  his  efforts  do  not  contribute  directly, 
they  do  indirectly  because  his  knowledge  stands  between  the  thief  and 
the  profit  to  be  stolen  by  the  adulteration  of  food. 

Every  girl  should  know  the  chemist  as  her  friend,  because  it  will 
enable  her  to  help  him  to  serve  her,  and  because  it  will  make  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  home  much  more  interesting.  There  is  a  fascinating 


10  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

story  in  everything  used.  And  besides,  most  women  are  engaged  in 
applying  chemistry  all  the  days  of  their  lives,  and  they  can  learn  to  do 
things  very  much  better  with  more  understanding  if  they  learn  why  they 
are  doing  them.  Feeding  the  young  and  old,  nursing  the  sick,  the  care 
of  the  house,  the  treatment  of  textiles,  all  these  are  based  on  the  facts 
of  chemistry. 

Chemistry  is  profoundly  important,  and  fascinatingly  interesting.  To 
learn  something  of  the  facts  which  the  chemist  has  to  interpret  and  to 
learn  how  this  knowledge  is  put  to  use  is  to  become  better  acquainted 
with  the  wonders  of  life;  it  is  the  key  to  the  gateway  into  a  new 
region;  to  have  it  is  almost  the  same  as  to  have  a  new  sense,  the  sense 
of  matter.  To  be  without  this  sense  is  to  be  blind  to  a  very  great  deal 
that  makes  one's  surroundings  interesting  and  one's  life  rich.  Neglect 
this  aspect  of  nature  altogether  and  it  follows  that  you  elect  to  walk 
in  darkness  in  places  where  it  would  be  easy  to  see.  You  will  be  like 
those  who  always  travel  from  one  place  to  another,  between  which  lie 
beautiful  scenes,  but  choose  their  hour  of  going  in  such  a  way  as  to 
cause  them  pass  all  the  beauty,  all  the  interesting  scenes,  at  night. 
Those  who  do  not  know  how  much  they  miss  cannot  be  blamed  for 
thinking  that  the  scenery  they  pass  through  is  probably  not  worth  look- 
ing at,  being  very  much  like  the  surroundings  they  leave  and  those 
they  reach. 

In  order  to  give  you  some  chance  to  describe  this  for  yourselves,  the 
best  plan  is  to  describe  some  of  the  interest  and  beauty  of  that  land 
which  so  few  know.  Then,  perhaps,  you  will  choose  wisely  and 
arrange  that  you  will  pass  through  the  land  of  chemistry  in  your 
journey,  though  not  with  your  eyes  closed,  but  where  all  is  brightly 
lighted  by  the  sun  of  understanding.  You  will  profit  and  all  mankind 
with  you. 

Human  beings,  as  machines,  are  limited  by  their  physical  development. 
There  are  a  great  many  degrees  of  muscular  strength,  from  the  strong 
man  to  the  helpless  invalid,  but  strength  is  desirable.  In  the  days  of 
the  cave  men,  the  limit  of  strength  was  simply  the  power  of  the 
strongest  man.  When  the  cave  man  wanted  to  make  a  home,  he  had  to 
take  what  nature  gave  him.  He  had  no  means  of  making  holes  in 
cliffs,  even  the  strongest  could  not  hope  to  hew  out  a  cave.  Now  man 
uses  the  locomotive  which  has  the  strength  of  thousands  of  men  and  he 
is  able  to  do  this  because  he  applies  chemistry  to  the  extraction  of 
iron  and  its  conversion  into  steel.  A  wooden  or  stone  engine  would 
not  be  much  use.  Now  man's  arm  is  made  strong  by  explosives;  dyna- 
mite from  glycerine,  ammonium  nitrate  from  the  air,  guncotton  from 
the  air  and  cotton.  He  can  shatter  great  cliffs  and  bring  them  tumbling 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  11 

in  hundreds  of  torn  fragments  to  their  base,  he  can  blow  to  pieces  rocks 
that  menace  his  ships,  he  can  pierce  mountain  ranges  and  bring  nations 
together,  and  he  can  make  the  oceans  meet.  How  is  iron  taken  from 
the  rust-like  ores  which  are  dug  from  the  earth?  How  is  iron  turned 
into  steel?  Why  are  explosives  so  powerful?  How  are  they  made? 
Such  questions  chemistry  only  can  answer. 

To  lose  one's  sight,  to  be  blind,  has  always  been  thought  one  of  the 
greatest  misfortunes  that  could  befall  a  human  being.  It  is  true,  and 
it  is  equally  true  that  to  extend  human  vision  means  adding  to  the 
wealth  of  life.  Chemistry  has  done  this  in  a  great  many  ways.  First 
of  all,  in  the  photograph  it  has  made  it  possible  for  you  to  see,  even 
though  you  were  not  near  the  object  you  view.  Stop  to  think  for  a 
moment  of  the  many  scenes,  the  many  places  which  you  feel  you  know, 
which  you  feel  are  in  a  sense  a  part  of  your  surroundings,  yet  which 
you  have  never  seen  except  in  pictures.  Pictures  may  be  great  art,  that 
is,  the  highest  type  of  picture,  but  great  art  of  its  very  nature  must  be 
rare,  and  can,  therefore,  depict  but  little  of  all  there  is  of  interest  in 
the  world.  The  camera  may  produce  something  which  is  not  great  art, 
but  which  is  a  truthful  record  of  what  can  be  seen  upon  the  earth. 
This  record  is  made  so  cheaply  that  it  is  viewed  by  millions  who  would 
never  see  the  subject  photographed.  Besides  making  it  possible  for 
people  to  see  distant  scenes,  the  chemist's  art,  applied  to  pictures,  has 
made  it  possible  for  millions  to  see  the  tragedies  and  comedies  of  the 
movie.  Here  the  chemist  has  functioned  not  only  in  making  it  possible 
to  record  the  effects  of  light,  that  is,  taking  the  pictures,  but  also  by 
mounting  these  on  a  flexible  transparent  film  which  makes  it  possible 
to  project  them  very  rapidly  one  after  the  other  upon  the  screen. 

Another  widening  of  vision  has  come  of  the  joint  efforts  of  physicists 
and  chemists.  The  physicist  has  produced  rays  which  pass  through  a 
great  many  kinds  of  matter  which  are  opaque  to  ordinary  light.  The 
chemist  has  made  it  possible  to  convert  these  rays  into  visible  ones. 
In  consequence  of  this,  you  can  stand  in  front  of  the  X-ray  tube  and 
see  the  beating  of  your  heart. 

Just  recently,  a  substance  which  the  chemist  produced  years  ago, 
promises  to  make  it  possible  to  send  pictures  over  wires  just  as  we  now 
send  words.  Already  the  newspapers  have  published  illustrations  sent 
more  than  a  thousand  miles,  a  whole  picture  being  transmitted  in  eight 
minutes. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  coming  of  photographic  methods  of  making 
pictures  has  made  it  possible  for  man  to  see  things  which  he  never  could 
have  seen  with  his  naked  eye.  Pictures  of  the  moving  parts  of  engines 
can  be  taken  in  such  a  minute  fraction  of  time  that  the  eye  would  be 


12  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

utterly  unable  to  form  a  mental  image  of  it.  Pictures  have  been  made 
in  one-millionth  of  a  second.  Thousands  of  these  could  be  made  in 
the  time  it  takes  the  human  eye  to  get  any  impression  at  all. 

Light  effects,  too  feeble  for  vision,  have  been  allowed  to  fall  per- 
sistently on  the  photographic  plate.  In  this  way,  we  have  detected 
millions  of  stars  which  we  could  never  possibly  have  seen  because  the 
effect  of  their  light  is  not  sufficient  unless  it  is  stored  up  in  successive 
small  quantities  until  it  produces  a  visible  effect. 

The  photographic  plate  is  peculiar  in  other  ways.  It  is  sensitive  to 
waves  which  we  cannot  recognize  as  light  and  on  this  account  we  are 
able  to  take  photographs  produced  by  invisible  light  and  therefore 
different  from  those  seen  by  our  senses. 

How  is  light  caught  as  a  picture  on  a  photographic  plate?  How  are 
negatives  developed,  and  prints  made?  How  is  film  made?  It  is  neces- 
sary to  learn  something  of  chemistry  in  order  to  understand. 

Our  eyes  have  seen  strange  things  because  of  the  results  of  chemistry ; 
our  ears  have  been  given  more  to  hear.  Everywhere  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  the  same  human  voice  may  be  heard  at 
the  same  time  by  means  of  the  phonograph  and  this  instrument  is  in  a 
great  measure  successful  because  of  the  material  which  the  chemist  has 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  inventor  of  the  mechanism,  more  especially 
for  the  making  of  the  discs.  Of  what  are  phonograph  records  made? 
In  a  moment  you  will  be  told. 

We  may  gain  a  further  notion  of  the  value  of  applied  chemistry  if 
we  think  of  those  things  which  occur  in  nature  and  then  consider  those 
into  which  the  chemist  can  transform  them.  Wood  is  probably  the 
most  common  vegetable  product.  Mechanically,  this  can  be  made  into 
a  great  number  of  useful  articles,  but  all  of  them  are  still  characteris- 
tically wooden.  The  chemist  converts  wood  into  wood  pulp,  and  wood 
pulp  makes  possible  the  daily  newspaper.  From  the  material  which  he 
takes  out  of  the  wood  in  making  the  paper,  he  is  finding  it  possible 
to  make  alcohol,  not  wood  alcohol,  but  grain  alcohol.  From  the  wood 
pulp,  he  can  go  to  artificial  silk,  which  is  more  lustrous  than  the 
natural.  Again,  during  the  war,  it  was  found  that  wood  pulp  could 
be  used  instead  of  cotton  in  making  guncotton,  and  that  means  that  it 
can  be  used  also  for  the  production  of  collodion  and  articles  made 
from  collodion,  such  as  celluloid. 

The  fact  that  wood  could  be  transformed  into  a  very  different  product, 
charcoal,  when  heated  out  of  contact  with  air  was  one  known  from 
remote  antiquity.  The  gases  that  escaped  were  of  no  consequence  to 
the  charcoal  burners  in  the  forests  of  old.  The  whole  operation  was 
considered  so  menial  that  only  the  very  lowest  class  in  the  population 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  13 

attended  to  it.  In  more  recent  times,  the  chemist  has  found  that  these 
vapors  which  escape  are  of  very  considerable  value.  From  them  we 
obtain  wood  alcohol  which  finds  a  very  extended  use  as  a  solvent.  To- 
gether with  this  wood  alcohol,  we  obtain  acetic  acid,  the  characteristic 
sour  principle  of  vinegar.  This  is  used  for  making  white  lead,  for 
example,  and  for  coating  the  wings  of  airplanes.  Once  having  the  wood 
alcohol,  we  find  it  possible  to  make  formaldehyde,  the  solution  of  which 
is  sold  by  the  druggist  as  formalin.  Formalin,  as  you  know,  if  you  have 
allowed  any  of  it  to  come  in  contact  with  your  skin,  toughens  animal 
matter  and  renders  it  horny.  Apparently,  this  happens  also  to  those 
micro-organisms  which  cause  disease  or  promote  putrefaction,  and 
formaldehyde,  therefore,  makes  an  excellent  disinfectant.  But  it  is 
used  for  a  great  many  other  things ;  used  for  substances  which  seem  very 
remote  from  wood  distillation.  For  instance,  most  phonograph  records 
are  made  on  a  substance  which  results  from  the  interaction  of  formal- 
dehyde and  carbolic  acid.  Artificial  ivory  can  be  made  from  formal- 
dehyde and  cheese. 

Cotton  is  another  abundant  vegetable  product.  The  seed  hairs  of 
this  have  been  gathered  from  ancient  times.  These  fibers  have  been 
woven  into  cloth.  Beyond  that,  very  little  has  been  done  with  it  until 
recent  years.  Now  cotton  is  made  into  guncotton,  the  explosive;  into 
collodion,  which  is  used  in  making  lacquers;  into  celluloid;  into  vul- 
canized fiber;  into  parchment  and  a  great  many  other  materials,  and 
the  seed  itself  is  made  to  yield  riches. 

Out  of  the  earth's  crust,  out  of  the  sand,  and  clay,  and  rocks,  chemical 
methods  applied  knowingly  or  blindly  have  enabled  man  to  obtain  new 
materials  of  great  value. 

All  the  metals,  save  only  gold  and  platinum  and  sometimes  copper, 
are  found  in  the  form  of  ores,  which,  in  themselves,  are  no  more  valu- 
able than  any  heavy  stone.  Iron  pours  out  at  the  base  of  the  blast 
furnace;  copper,  silver,  and  lead  are  extracted  from  their  ores  in  the 
smelter.  Tin,  zinc,  aluminum — the  value  of  these  all  can  realize,  but 
there  are  many  other  metals  of  which  less  is  heard.  Many  of  them  have 
been  produced  in  commercial  quantities  only  in  recent  years,  but  already 
they  are  indispensable;  magnesium,  which  makes  it  possible  to  take 
pictures  by  flashlight;  tungsten,  which  enables  us  to  turn  small  quan- 
tities of  electricity  into  light  as  in  the  pocket  flash,  or  large  quantities 
more  economically,  as  in  the  indandescent  bulb;  vanadium,  chromium, 
molybdenum,  their  very  names  are  hardly  known,  but  when  added  to 
steel  they  make  new  and  wonderful  metal  mixtures  possible;  some 
so  hard  that  high  speed  tools  made  of  them  can  be  used  to  chisel  ordinary 
steel  even  when  these  tools  are  red  hot  from  friction.  Already  these 


14  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

rarer  metals  have  given  us  rustless  knives.  Yet  all  this  is  a  beginning. 
There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  possibilities  have  been  exhausted. 
The  whole  thing  depends  on  the  chemist  making  the  extraction  of  these 
rare  metals  cheap  enough.  He  has  already  done  that  in  the  case  of 
aluminium.  Sixty  years  ago,  the  metal  could  be  had  in  small  quantities 
at  a  price  of  about  $140  a  pound.  Now  it  sells  at  23  cents,  and  is 
available  in  any  quantity.  That,  by  the  way,  is  the  achievement  of  a 
young  man,  little  more  than  a  boy,  who  was  caught  by  the  interest  of 
chemistry.  A  discovery  such  as  that  makes  a  life  worth  living.  Like 
all  such  advances,  it  leads  to  unexpected  results.  For  example,  in  this 
case,  cheap  aluminium  has  made  it  possible  to  fuse  great  castings  to- 
gether, not  by  using  the  metal  as  such,  but  by  using  the  enormous  heat 
with  which  it  burns;  it  gives  us  a  little  local  furnace  hot  enough  to  melt 
iron. 

But  instead  of  trying  to  thing  of  some  of  the  uses  made  of  metals,  let 
us  try  to  think  what  is  would  be  like  if  we  had  none  of  them.  The 
structure  of  civilization  would  collapse ;  railroads,  steamships,  telegraphs, 
and  telephones,  automobiles,  kitchen  ranges,  knives  and  scissors,  nails 
and  pins,  skyscrapers  and  bridges  all  would  vanish. 

But  metals  are  not  all  that  the  chemist  makes  of  the  materials  in  the 
earth's  crust.  He  makes  cement  from  limestone  and  clay;  soda  from 
salt ;  fertilizer  from  the  bones  of  long  extinct  animals ;  acid  from  sulfur ; 
dyes  and  drugs  from  coal. 

Dyes  and  drugs  from  coal!  That  is  perhaps  the  best  illustration  of 
all  to  show  how  unexpected  are  the  hiding  places  of  treasures.  The 
story  of  this  success  is  a  long  one ;  it  is  still  being  written ;  a  fascinating 
yarn  as  full  of  adventure  as  those  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson.  The  plot 
may  be  outlined  in  a  few  words. 

Black  coal  is  material  formed  from  the  wood  and  peat  of  the  swamp- 
forests  of  millions  of  years  ago.  It  was  long  before  it  was  used  as  a 
fuel  because  nobody  thought  of  burning  what  looked  like  stone,  still 
longer  before  it  was  used  for  making  coal  gas  and  until  that  time  no 
coal  tar  was  saved. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  what  coal  tar  is.  When  a  shovelful  of  soft 
coal  is  thrown  on  to  a  fire  it  does  not  burst  into  flame,  but  a  cloud  of 
smoke  comes  of!  as  can  be  seen  when  the  fireman  throws  coal  into  the 
fire  box  of  a  locomotive.  In  a  few  moments,  when  once  the  fresh  coal 
is  burning  no  more  heavy  smoke  appears.  The  smoke  comes  of  heating 
the  coal  without  burning  it.  The  surest  way  of  doing  this  is  to  put 
the  coal  in  a  pot  and  put  this  on  the  fire;  if  the  pot  has  a  small  outlet 
the  smoke  pours  out  through  this.  Allow  the  smoke  to  pass  through 
a  long  tube  and  most  of  it  will  settle,  though  gas  still  keeps  coming  out. 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  15 

This  gas,  when  made  on  a  large  scale,  is  purified  and  distributed  as 
illuminating  gas  through  the  city  mains. 

In  the  tube  there  is  a  mixture  of  tar  and  water  containing  ammonia. 
The  tar  is  an  evil  smelling  sticky  substance,  a  thing  of  no  apparent 
value  whatever.  However,  the  chemist  does  not  hesitate  to  examine  a 
substance  because  it  looks  nasty.  In  this  case  he  found  that  coal  tar 
was  a  mixture  of  things  which  could  be  separated  pretty  well  by  boiling 
the  tar,  collecting  what  distilled  over  in  portions,  and  repeating  the 
distillation.  In  1843,  by  such  a  study,  a  substance  called  aniline  was 
discovered.  Twenty-one  years  later  a  boy  who  was  tremendously  in- 
terested in  chemistry  wanted  to  make  quinine  artificially.  All  he  knew 
about  it  was  that  it  had  certain  properties  a  very  little  like  those  of 
aniline,  but  that  it  contained  oxygen  which  aniline  does  not.  He  tried 
to  convert  aniline  into  quinine  by  putting  in  oxygen.  He  noticed  that 
he  obtained  a  brightly  colored  material.  He  tested  this  and  found  it 
to  be  a  bright  violet-mauve  dye.  This  discovery  created  a  sensation 
because  it  showed  that  dyes  could  be  made  instead  of  taken  from  plants, 
and  also  because  the  discovery  soon  led  to  the  making  of  much  more 
brilliant  dyes  than  any  natural  ones. 

Aniline  is  present  only  in  very  small  amounts  in  coal  tar,  but  even 
before  the  work  of  young  Perkin,  it  had  been  found  possible  to  make 
aniline  from  one  of  the  oils,  benzene,  which  is  relatively  abundant  in 
coal  tar. 

Besides  this  oil,  there  are  the  others,  and  three  solids,  one  of  which 
is  naphthalene,  which  you  know  as  moth  balls.  Here  were  six  new 
kinds  of  molecules  to  experiment  with  and  the  work  went  ahead  with 
great  vigor  because  the  molecules  interested  the  scientist  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  business  man  on  the  other,  the  latter  because  the  making 
of  dyes  became  very  profitable. 

Soon  the  chemist  knew  so  much  of  the  subject  that  he  decided  to  try 
his  hand  at  making  dyes  which  were  till  then  found  only  in  plants.  He 
started  on  Turkey  Red  and  soon  found  he  could  make  that  from  coal 
tar.  Then  he  went  on  to  indigo ;  it  took  him  twenty  years  to  solve  that 
problem,  but  it  was  done  and  now  practically  all  blue  overalls  are 
dyed  with  indigo  made  from  coal. 

In  addition  to  these  successes,  work  was  being  done  on  making 
medicines  from  coal  and  this,  too,  very  soon  resulted  in  great  achieve- 
ments. For  example,  salicylic  acid  is  the  best  thing  for  rheumatism, 
but  it  is  found  in  nature  only  in  the  oil  of  the  little  wintergreen  plant. 
There  is  not  enough  wintergreen  to  furnish  a  supply  sufficient  to  make 
salicylic  acid  cheap.  The  chemist  takes  carbolic  acid,  of  which  there  is 
quite  a  quantity  in  coal  tar,  mixes  it  with  lye,  and  heats  it  with  carbon 


16  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

dioxide  under  pressure  and  salicylic  acid  is  made,  made  so  cheaply  that 
poor  and  rich  can  use  it.  This  is  only  one  of  hundreds  of  materials  of 
great  value  which  are  a  direct  result  of  the  chemist's  work  on  a 
waste  product. 

There  is  another  reason  why  you  would  profit  by  learning  something 
of  the  methods  by  which  matter  is  transformed,  methods  which  are 
not  strange  or  magic,  but  simply  the  result  of  precise  observation  and 
clear  thinking.  This  additional  reason  is  that  you  are  in  charge  of  a 
chemical  laboratory;  whether  you  wish  it  or  not,  whether  you  know 
it  or  not,  from  your  beginning  to  the  end  of  your  days  you  are  the 
director  of  a  laboratory  and  plant.  You  have  lots  of  assistants  who  do 
their  business  so  well  .that  you  have  not  to  bother  yourself  with  their 
actions  at  most  times,  but  if  you  do  not  act  intelligently  as  a  director 
there  are  times  when  things  will  go  wrong  needlessly.  Then  you  know 
that  your  plant  is  not  running  as  it  should  because  the  joy  fades  out 
of  life  and  you  are  very  miserable,  you  are  ill.  That  the  body  is  the 
seat  of  complicated  chemical  changes  is  very  evident.  A  human  being  is 
apt  to  think  of  the  food  eaten  as  coal  put  into  a  furnace;  the  notion  is 
correct,  but  only  in  part ;  in  reality,  especially  when  the  body  is  growing, 
the  food  eaten  turns  into  the  body,  just  as  though  the  coal  turned  into 
the  iron  of  the  furnace.  Eat  lamb  or  beef,  fish  or  fowl,  corn  or  buck- 
wheat, provided  the  variety  is  sufficient,  the  result  is  the  same;  all  of 
these  are  used  in  making  human  being.  A  little  particle  of  lamb  does 
not  become  a  little  particle  of  human  muscle,  otherwise  since  meat  and 
fish  differ  appreciably,  those  living  on  one  would  be  different  human 
beings  from  those  living  on  the  other.  What  the  body  does  is  very 
much  what  the  chemist  does;  the  food  is  broken  down  into  smaller 
units,  the  simpler  molecules,  and  built  together  again  into  body  material. 
Those  who  wish  to  be  doctors  must  know  about  these  things;  those 
who  wish  to  act  wisely  in  the  choice  of  food  and  in  the  dieting  of  the 
sick  should  know  of  the  processes  going  on  within  the  body.  Every 
one  can  act  more  wisely  in  keeping  himself  in  good  condition  if  he 
knows  something  of  psysiological  chemistry. 

The  chemist  has  gone  so  far  as  to  learn  the  composition  of  some  of 
those  materials  which  control  the  changes  within  us,  and  in  this  way 
he  has  been  able  to  assist  the  physician  in  curing  or  relieving  abnormal 
conditions  by  making  the  very  things  which  the  body  needs. 

In  addition  he  has  found  it  possible  to  make  a  great  many  substances, 
which  are  not  produced  within  us,  but  yet  are  useful  in  treating  illness. 
Most  of  the  remedies  on  the  shelves  of  the  family  medicine  cupboard  are 
made  and  are  not  found  in  nature.  The  chemist  can  supply  soporifics 
to  induce  sleep;  anesthetics  to  make  portions  or  all  of  the  body  in- 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  17 

sensible  to  pain;  stimulants  to  keep  sleep  away;  materials  which  will 
control  the  pressure  of  the  blood;  these  are  but  a  few  of  the  materials 
he  supplies  as  munitions  to  the  physician  in  his  fight  on  disease. 

The  war  on  disease  is  one  that  is  with  us  all  the  time ;  young  and  old 
are  attached  by  bacteria  day  in  and  day  out.  Every  time  the  skin  is 
broken  invaders  flock  into  the  breach.  Usually  our  natural  defenses 
suffice,  but  if  they  do  not,  then  our  bodies  are  invaded  and  we  fall  ill 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  depending  on  the  kind  of  invader  and  the 
strength  of  our  second  lines  of  defense.  These  enemies  of  ours  have 
always  been  without  scruple;  the  laws  of  nations  have  meant  nothing 
to  them.  Long  ages  ago  the  bacteria  of  a  cold  invented  a  sneeze  "gas," 
the  bacillus  of  lockjaw  used  a  terrible  poison  on  the  body  cells.  Typhoid 
and  scarlet  fevers,  diphtheria,  measles,  and  all  similar  infectious  dis- 
eases are  caused  by  the  poisons  produced  by  minute  living  things  that 
have  invaded  us.  The  physician  helps  us  to  fight  against  these  attacks 
and  tries  to  keep  us  free  from  them.  In  his  work  his  ally  is  the  chemist 
who  supplies  materials  which  will  either  repel  the  invaders  or  reinforce 
our  body  cells  sufficiently  to  make  them  victorious.  Sometimes  the 
attack  is  carried  into  the  enemy's  country,  as  in  disinfecting  the  water 
supply  of  cities.  Some  day  the  chemist  hopes  to  place  in  the  physician's 
hands  materials  which  are  deadly  poison  to  bacteria  but  harmless  to  the 
body.  Then  infectious  disease  will  lose  most  of  its  terror. 

In  looking  forward  into  life  from  the  school  age,  there  is  always  one 
tremendously  important  subject:  the  vocation  which  is  to  support  you 
and  make  you  useful  to  yourself  and  others.  There  must  be  all  kinds 
of  occupations  and  within  limits  the  choice  of  any  one  is  open  to  you. 
Among  the  possibilities  is  that  of  being  a  chemist.  Before  a  choice 
can  be  made,  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  subject.  What 
has  been  said  should  show  that  this  branch  of  knowledge  is  one  that 
can  very  well  be  studied  by  every  one  sufficiently  to  become  familiar  with 
the  part  it  plays  in  life.  It  is  like  a  universal  language  which  refers  to 
everything  everywhere. 

As  a  profession  it  offers  a  very  wide  field.  It  deals  with  so  many 
aspects  of  the  utilization  of  matter  that  every  type  of  work  can  be 
found  within  its  boundaries. 

To  be  a  research  chemist  is  to  use  one's  mind  in  seeking  to  understand 
the  many  unsolved  riddles  of  the  transformation  of  matter;  it  is  to  be 
of  distinct  use  because  directly  or  indirectly  it  leads  to  a  better  control 
of  the  forces  of  nature.  To  be  an  industrial  plant  chemist  is  to  put 
chemistry  to  use  in  controlling  plant  operations  on  a  large  scale;  it 
means  the  direction  of  men,  as  well  as  matter.  To  be  a  physical 
chemist  is  to  devote  attention  to  the  conditions  of  chemical  changes: 


18  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

this  is  the  best  field  for  one  with  a  liking  for  mathematics.  To  be  a 
biological  chemist  is  to  devote  one's  self  to  the  study  of  the  chemistry 
of  living  matter;  a  most  fascinating  branch  of  knowledge,  which 
can  be  pursued  either  as  research  or  in  the  practical  field. 

The  fertilizer  industry  offers  a  chance  to  make  chemistry  useful  to 
the  farmer;  the  application  of  chemistry  to  agriculture  serves  the  same 
end.  Farming  is  now  becoming  a  matter  of  fertilizers,  sprays,  disin- 
fectants, and  depends  more  and  more  on  a  knowledge  of  the  chemistry 
of  the  soil.  The  packing  industry,  the  making  of  flour,  the  preservation 
of  foods,  extraction  of  beet  and  cane  sugar,  the  utilization  of  waste 
products — all  these  activities  which  are  the  industrial  working  up  of  the 
products  of  the  soil  call  for  the  services  of  the  chemist. 

The  making  of  dyes  and  drugs  is  possible  only  because  of  the  chemist's 
aid.  These  industries  will  need  a  constant  supply  of  men  trained  in  the 
science. 

The  Army  will  require  men  for  the  Chemical  Warfare  Service,  men 
who  will  experiment  in  peace  time  to  make  sure  that  the  Nation  will 
be  able  to  defend  itself  in  war. 

Chemists  will  be  needed  in  the  industry  of  making  explosives, 
artificial  silk,  celluloid  and  the  like.  Others  will  be  wanted  in  the 
smelters  and  in  the  oil  refineries  of  the  country.  There  is  really  a  very 
great  range. 

It  might  appear  as  though  success  were  certain  and  as  though 
chemists  must  be  in  such  great  demand  that  the  profession  could  not  be 
overcrowded.  To  be  quite  honest  it  is  necessary  to  say  that  there  is 
this  fact  which  makes  chemists  less  in  demand  than  might  be  expected: 
When  the  chemist  has  discovered  a  process  he  can  usually  make  it  so 
simple  that  any  intelligent  person  can  carry  it  out.  Therefore  the 
chemist  has  to  pass  on  to  something  else  or  be  paid  at  the  rate  of  an 
ordinary  unskilled  workman.  But  even  so,  there  is  an  abundance  of 
good  places  for  good  chemists. 

What  has  been  said  applies  chiefly  to  men,  but  women  also  find 
chemistry  very  well  suited  to  them  as  a  profession.  It  does  not  involve 
heavy  work,  it  requires  great  skill,  it  is  very  interesting  and  it  applies 
to  everyday  life.  The  combination  of  biology  and  chemistry  offers 
perhaps  the  most  excellent  opportunity  to  women. 

Another  aspect  of  the  subject  has  been  touched  upon,  but  it  will 
|bear  further  emphasis. 

TO  enjoy  life  to  the  full  you  must  be  able  to  use  your  senses  to  the 
best  possible  advantage,  which  means  that  you  must  not  only  collect  im- 
pressions, you  must  interpret  them  also.  But  to  do  no  more  than  use 
ypur  9wn  senses  is  to  mis§  a  very  great  deal;  you  must  use  the  collec- 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  19 

tive  senses  of  mankind.  Then  you  will  really  become  aware  of  and 
enjoy  countless  facts  which  would  otherwise  escape  you.  Around  these 
facts  you  can  build  innumerable  happy  fancies  because  an  active 
imagination  uses  the  suggestions  that  come  from  reality.  Not  to  possess 
a  cheerful,  lively  imagination  is  to  go  through  life  sadly,  to  be  afraid 
of  one's  own  company,  to  be  the  slave  of  chance  surroundings. 

It  is  not  the  keenness  of  your  eyes  alone  which  determines  what  you 
see.  The  interpretation  given  the  sight  is  just  as  important.  A  fine 
story  published  in  a  foreign  language  which  you  do  not  know  is  to  you 
nothing  but  a  great  many  groups  of  letters  on  paper,  it  is  only  what 
your  eye  actually  sees.  In  just  the  same  way  unless  you  know  the 
language  in  which  the  records  of  things  are  written  you  cannot  have 
any  real  sense  of  their  meaning  and  of  their  beauty. 

Look  at  the  scene  about  you  when  you  are  at  a  picnic  or  when  you 
are  fishing.  Overhead  the  green  leaves  rustle  as  the  breeze  moves  them  ; 
what  are  they  to  you  as  you  gaze  up  at  them?  Merely  pretty  green 
shapes  against  the  bright  sky?  Trifles  of  no  interest  to  a  live  boy 
or  girl? 

A  house  in  which  bombs  were  being  manufactured  would  look  as 
uninteresting  as  the  next  until  the  detectives,  following  each  little  clue, 
told  the  story  of  what  was  going  on  within.  In  those  leaves  there 
are  countless  workers  making  stranger  things  than  bombs.  In  those 
leaves  we  know,  because  of  the  work  of  the  detectives  in  the  service 
of  botany  and  chemistry,  that  there  is  being  made  living  matter  out  of 
dead,  coal  from  ashes  and  flue  gases.  We  are  accustomed  to  the 
knowledge  that  all  things  die  and  disappear,  but  we  give  no  thought 
to  the  coming  into  existence,  not  of  each  living  thing,  but  of  living 
matter.  But  no  animal  can  turn  those  things,  into  which  living  things 
pass,  back  into  the  material  of  life.  Yet  it  must  be  done  or  else  life 
would  cease.  Look  at  those  frail  leaves  with  the  eyes  of  the  botanist 
and  chemist  and  they  become  factories  like  countless  billions  of  others 
wherein  are  made  the  things  which  make  life  possible.  Stop  all  the 
myriad  cells  of  the  leaf  and  grass  blade  and  within  a  few  months  the 
beginning  of  the  end  would  be  with  us.  A  year,  two  years  at  most,  and 
all  would  be  dead  except  for  toadstools,  wood  insects  and  bacteria. 

Each  thin  leaf,  each  blade  of  grass  is  a  collection  of  many  thousand 
little  work  cells  in  which  the  carbon  dioxide  that  is  the  end  of  all 
dead  things  and  the  minerals  of  the  earth  are  brought  together  and 
built  into  sugar,  starch,  fat  and  protein  substances,  which  can  become 
living  matter  by  the  agency  of  what  is  alive. 

The  botanist  sees  each  minute  cell,  sees  its  walls  coated  with  a  living 
slime,  sees  this  studded  with  the  green  particles  that  give  the  leaf  its 


20  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

color,  particles  in  which  the  transformation  of  matter  takes  place.  He 
sees  the  arrangement  by  which  the  materials  are  brought  to  the  work- 
shops and  the  manner  in  which  the  finished  products  are  removed. 

The  chemist  watches  the  throng  of  jostling  molecules  pushing  their 
way  into  the  tiny  pores  on  the  underside  of  the  leaf,  he  watches  them 
enter  the  liquid  of  the  plant  cell,  then  he  loses  them  until  they  emerge 
as  oxygen  and  sugar.  Just  how  the  transition  is  effected  he  does  not 
know.  That  is  one  of  the  great  problems  awaiting  solution.  The  sugar 
turns  to  starch,  or  with  the  mineral  matter  brought  from  the  soil  is 
turned  into  protein.  How  this  is  done  we  do  not  know. 

The  molecules  factory  of  the  green  plant  cannot  run  without  power 
to  keep  its  wheels  turning.  The  psysicist  is  ready  to  explain  that : 
Green  leaves  are  found  only  in  light ;  in  darkness  the  factory  stops.  But 
light  is  a  form  of  energy,  it  can  be  converted  into  work  just  as  the  heat 
of  burning  coal  can  be  in  the  steam  engine.  The  leaves  then  are  fac- 
tories run  by  light  in  which  the  molecules  of  worn  out  life  are  put 
into  service  again.  Your  breath  is  not  living  matter,  but  it  may  be 
caught  there  above  your  head  and  brought  to  life. 

If  you  want  stories  of  real  hunting,  of  life  when  great  animals  strode 
over  the  dry  land,  wallowed  in  the  marshes  or  swam  in  the  sea,  then 
learn  the  language  of  the  rocks.  The  geologist  is  the  detective  who  has 
deciphered  the  strange  code.  Those  rocks  in  the  stream  before  you  are 
older  than  the  pyramids,  older  than  the  oldest  record  of  man.  Perhaps 
they  were  made  by  fine  matter  settling  in  water,  or  by  the  cooling  of 
fiery  lava  poured  from  great  rents  in  the  quaking  earth's  crust  millions 
of  years  before  great  Dinosaur  fought  Dinosaur  in  the  dim  past  of 
living  things. 

But  the  chemist  cannot  be  content  to  know  how  these  rocks  were 
made,  he  must  know  of  what  they  were  made.  He  and  the  geologist 
must  go  further  and  still  further  back  into  the  past  until  they  reach 
the  beginning  of  the  world.  The  geologist  goes  no  further,  but  the 
chemist  pushes  still  further,  he  must  know  what  matter  was  before  the 
world  was  made.  In  this  quest  he  joins  company  with  the  student 
of  the  heavens  and  earth,  the  astronomer.  The  two  go  back  to  the 
time  when  the  great  sun  and  planets  were  only  a  fiery  curtain  hanging 
as  a  mist  in  the  great  space  of  the  heavens.  This  the  astronomer  tells 
us  was  the  beginning,  he  guesses  that  the  contraction  and  cooling  of  this 
cloud  gave  us  the  sun  and  earth.  The  chemist  asks  how  the  glowing 
cloud  came  to  be  formed  and  whether  the  stars  are  growing  old  like 
other  things.  The  astronomer  can  only  answer  that  probably  the  stars 
must  be  growing  cooler,  but  the  age  of  these  bodies  cannot  be  told. 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  21 

How  can  such  a  question  be  answered  when  all  that  comes  to  us  is  a 
feeble  ray  of  light  coming  through  billions  of  miles  of  cold  space? 

Then  with  the  good  help  of  the  astronomer,  the  chemist  and 
physicist  set  forth  on  the  most  daring  quest  yet  tried  by  man,  to  read 
the  story  of  the  universe.  With  only  that  faint  light  that  journeys  to 
the  earth  from  the  stars  to  guide  them  they  have  succeeded  in  learning 
of  what  the  stars  are  made. 

All  they  could  see  was  that  light,  but  in  it  was  the  story  of  the  birth 
and  death  of  great  suns,  the  story  of  a  process  so  tremendous  in  its 
course  that  a  billion  years  are  to  it  but  as  a  second  is  in  the  life  of  man. 

This  universe,  from  the  structure  of  the  least  of  all  things,  the 
parts  of  the  atom,  to  the  limitless  boundaries  of  the  great  heavens,  is 
for  you  to  read.  Will  you  go  blind  to  all  this  wonder,  busying  your- 
selves with  the  little  shallow,  petty  things,  or  will  you  see  what  is  your 
heritage,  a  greater  wealth  than  any  stored  in  all  the  vaults  of  all  the 
world's  tresures?  The  token  that  you  must  show  to  take  these 
treasures  into  yourselves  is  knowledge,  knowledge  of  the  sciences,  not 
least  among  which  is  chemistry. 


Teaching  Chemistry  in  the  High  Schools 


The  following  chapter  on  the  Teaching  of  Chemistry  in  High  Schools 
is  taken  from  a  report  of  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of 
Secondary  Education,  appointed  by  the  National  Education  Association. 
Otis  W.  Caldwell  was  Chairman  of  the  Committee  in  Science,  and 
Clarence  D.  Kingsley,  Chairman  of  the  Commission.  This  report  was 
published  by  the  Bureau  of  Education: 

The  average  person  looks  upon  chemistry  as  a  mysterious,  occult 
science,  tinged  with  necromancy.  This  almost  superstitious  ignorance 
prevents  appreciation  of  the  chemist's  power  to  serve  society.  In  indus- 
try it  is  likely  to  result  in  great  economic  waste  through  failure  properly 
to  utilize  raw  materials,  develop  by-products,  and  apply  chemical 
methods  of  control  to  processes  of  manufacture.  The  high-school  chem- 
istry course  in  its  reorganized  form  should  attract  a  larger  number  of 
pupils  and  do  much  to  supplant  this  ignorance  by  a  measure  of  broad 
understanding. 

In  the  past,  chemical  laws,  theories,  and  generalizations  have  usually 
been  taught  as  such,  and  their  applications  in  industry  and  daily  life 
have  been  presented  largely  as  illustrative  material.  In  the  reorganized 
course,  this  order  should  be  reversed.  Laws  and  theories  should  be 
approached  through  experimental  data  obtained  in  the  laboratory  and 
through  applications  with  which  the  pupil  is  already  familiar  and  in 
which  he  has  a  real  interest. 

In  the  past,  chemistry  courses  over-emphasized  theories,  concepts,  and 
information  of  value  principally  to  those  who  will  pursue  advanced 
courses.  A  course  which  emphasizes  the  chemistry  of  industry,  of  com- 
merce, of  the  soil,  and  of  the  household  furnishes  a  wider  outlook, 
develops  a  practical  appreciation  of  the  scope  of  chemical  service,  and 
moreover  arouses  an  interest  which  leads  naturally  to  further  study. 

The  war  showed  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  number  of  chemists  trained 
to  work  out  such  problems  as  arose  in  that  national  emergency.  The 
reconstruction  period  and  the  new  conditions  of  world  competition  in 
trade  will  increase  the  demand  for  specialists  in  the  chemical  problems 
of  manufacture.  High-school  courses  in  chemistry  should  therefore  be 
so  reorganized  as  to  arouse  an  interest  in  the  science  of  chemistry,  and 
thereby  stimulate  more  and  more  pupils  to  specialize  later  in  this  and 
related  fields, 

[22] 


CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  23 

Principal  aims. — The  principal  aims  in  teaching  chemistry  in  the  high 
school  should  be — 

1.  To  give  an  understanding  of  the  significance  and  importance  of 
chemistry  in  our  national  life.     The  services  of  chemistry  to  industry, 
to  medicine,   to  home  life,  to  agriculture,   and  to  the  welfare  of  the 
nation,  should  be  understood  in  an  elementary  way. 

2.  To  develop  those  specific  interests,  habits,  and  abilities  to  which 
all  science  study  should  contribute. 

The  powers  of  observation,  discrimination,  interpretation,  and  deduc- 
tion are  constantly  called  for  in  chemistry  and  are  so  used  in  this  subject 
as  to  require  a  high  type  of  abstract  thinking.  The  principles  and 
generalizations  of  chemistry  are  often  difficult.  For  this  reason  chem- 
istry should  occur  in  the  third  or  fourth  year  of  the  high  school. 

3.  To  build  upon  the  earlier  science  courses,  and  knit  together  pre- 
vious science  work  by  supplying  knowledge  fundamental  to  all  science. 
Coming  after  at  least  a  year  of  general  science,  and  usually  also  a  year 
of  biological  science,   the  work  in  chemistry  should  further  use  these 
sciences.     It  should  furnish  a  new  viewpoint  for  the  organization  of 
science  materials,  and  develop  wider  and  more  satisfactory  unifying  and 
controlling  principles.    By  this  means  the  desirable  element  of  continuity 
in  the  science  course  will  be  secured. 

4.  To  give  information  of  definite  service  to  home  and  daily  life. 
This  aim  has  been  the  chief  influence  in  reorganizing  high-school  chem- 
istry  courses,    and   will   undoubtedly   produce   further   changes.      The 
criterion  of  usefulness,  as  a  basis  for  the  selection  of  subject  matter, 
should  not  be  limited  to  the  immediately  useful  or  practical  in  a  narrow 
sense,  but  should  be  so  interpreted  as  to  include  all  topics  which  make 
for  a  better  understanding  of,  and  a  keener  insight  into,  the  conditions, 
institutions,  and  demands  of  modern  life. 

5.  To  help  pupils  to  discover  whether  they  have  aptitudes  for  further 
work   in   pure   or   applied   science,    and   to   induce   pupils   having  such 
aptitudes  to  enter  the  university  or  technical  school,  there  to  continue 
their  science  studies. 

General  considerations  concerning  content  and  method. — This  state- 
ment is  based  on  the  assumption  that  chemistry  will  usually  be  given  in 
the  third  or  the  fourth  year  of  the  four-year  high  school.  Investigation 
shows  that  a  little  more  than  one-half  of  the  four-year  high  schools 
present  chemistry  in  the  third  year,  and  that  pupils  electing  chemistry 
usually  have  had  one  year  of  general  science  and  often  a  year  of  bio- 
logical science. 

( 1 )  Difficulties. — Some  difficulties  in  organizing  courses  in  chemistry 
on  the  basis  of  individual  and  specific  pieces  of  work  are: 


24  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

(a)  Many  of  the  most  important  principles  are  impossible  of  direct 
or  experimental  proof.    They  can  not  be  demonstrated  in  specific,  indi- 
vidual problems,  and  hence  can  not  be  grasped  easily  by  the  immature 
mind.     These  concepts  must  be  accepted  on  the  basis  of  their  service  to 
the  science  and  the  useful  conclusions  based  upon  them,  for  example,  the 
assumptions  of  the  atomic  hypothesis  and  the  rule  of  Avogadro. 

(b)  The  number  of  important  principles  and  facts  is  so  great  that 
organization   of  the  information  supplied  by  discussion,   investigation, 
and  experiment  is  difficult.     Appreciation  of  the  science  as  such  is  im- 
possible until  the  bases  for  establishing  relationships  and  controlling  facts 
are  developed. 

(c)  Many  problems  and  questions  which  the  pupil  tends  to  raise 
involve  complex  phases  of  chemistry,   or  ideas  too   advanced   for  his 
understanding. 

Some  motive,  some  compelling  desire  to  know,  must  actuate  the  pupil 
in  any  study  which  is  really  educative.  Progress  in  chemistry,  there- 
fore, is  dependent  upon  a  specific  purpose,  a  conscious  need  to  learn  the 
facts  and  their  underlying  causes  or  explanation.  The  educational  value 
of  any  problem  depends  upon  the  degree  to  which  the  pupil  makes  it  his 
own  and  identifies  himself  with  it,  rather  than  upon  its  concreteness,  or 
the  useful  applications  involved,  or  the  familiar  associations  connecting 
it  with  other  problems,  important  as  these  considerations  are.  The  basis 
for  organizing  a  course  in  chemistry  should  lie  in  the  changing  character 
of  the  pupil's  interest  and  the  increased  intensity  of  his  needs  as  a  result 
of  his  growing  abilities  and  of  his  increased  power  to  direct  and  use 
them.  A  topic  in  chemistry  which  would  have  seemed  abstruse  and 
uninteresting  a  year  or  even  a  few  months  earlier  may  suddenly  become 
a  real  problem  to  the  pupil.  Such  questions  as  what  the  constitution  of 
things  really  is,  what  properties  the  atoms  possess,  or  why  the  volumes 
of  gases  have  such  simple  relations  to  one  another,  may  become  problems 
of  real  significance  to  the  pupil.  Ultimate  causes  and  reasons  appeal  to 
the  adolescent  pupil.  Problems  having  to  do  with  home,  farm,  local 
industries,  the  civic  and  the  national  welfare,  are  limited  only  by  the 
time  and  energy  available  for  their  pursuit. 

(2)  Laboratory  work. — The  relation  between  class  and  laboratory 
work  is  a  most  important  problem  for  the  chemistry  teacher.  Unfortu- 
nately, theory  and  practice  have  not  been  properly  related.  Some  of 
the  reasons  for  this  situation  are: 

(a)  It  is  difficult  to  correlate  recitation  and  experiment.  One  lags 
behind  the  other.  The  remedy  is  a  greater  flexibility  in  the  program, 
so  that  the  time  may  be  used  for  either  purpose  as  needed.  There  is  a 
growing  tendency  to  make  all  periods  of  a  uniform,  60-minute  length 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  25 

instead  of  40  or  45  minutes  on  some  days  and  80  and  90  minutes  on 
other  days.  This  change  helps  to  make  possible  a  closer  correlation 
between  experiments  and  the  discussion  of  them. 

(b)  Experiments  often   fail  of   their  object   because  of   insufficient 
directions,  failure  to  provide  needful  data,  or  lack  of  a  definite  and  clear 
purpose.    This  needful  information  must  be  supplied,  but  in  such  a  way 
as  to  stimulate  interest  and  raise  questions  to  be  answered  by  the  experi- 
ment itself.     Some  teachers  prefer  to  take  the  first  few  minutes  of  each 
laboratory  exercise  in  talking  over  the  work,  suggesting  important  ques- 
tions, pointing  out  difficulties,  and  giving  necessary  cautions.     It  might 
be  well  to  embody  more  of  the  information  usually  supplied  by  the  text 
in  the  laboratory  directions  themselves,  so  that  they  would  be  thought- 
producing  and  stimulating  rather  than  simply  directions  for  manipula- 
tion and  observation. 

(c)  Too  many  experiments  involve  repetition  of  work  described  in 
the  text  or  have  no  outcome  beyond  the  mere  doing  and  writing  in  the 
note  book.     Unless  the  experiments  contribute  to  the  recitations  and 
provide  data  or  information  which  is  used,  they  are  largely  a  waste  of 
time. 

Laboratory  experiments,  to  accomplish  their  purpose,  must  concern  a 
problem  or  a  question  which  the  pupil  seeks  to  answer  because  he  is 
interested  in  doing  so.  The  titles  of  experiments  can  often  be  worded 
so  that  they  become  suggestive  by  stating  them  in  problem  or  question 
form.  For  example,  instead  of  the  title  "Mordant  dyeing,"  a  better 
one  would  be,  "Why  are  mordants  used  in  dyeing?"  Or,  in  place  of 
"Equivalent  weight  of  magnesium,"  substitute  "How  much  magnesium 
is  needed  to  produce  a  gram  of  hydrogen?"  Or,  for  "Analysis  of  am- 
monia," substitute  "What  is  the  most  economical  brand  of  household 
ammonia  to  purchase?"  The  mere  rewording  of  a  title  itself  is  not 
enough.  The  question  itself  must  be  a  vital  one?  to  the  pupil  either 
through  his  own  independent  thought  or  as  a  result  of  the  stimulating 
influence  of  the  class  discussion. 

Flexibility  in  the  keeping  of  notebooks  is  desirable,  provided  that  the 
essential  facts  and  conclusions  are  always  included.  The  notes  should 
usually  include  a  clear  statement  of  the  problem  in  hand;  a  description 
of  the  method  of  procedure,  making  use  of  a  diagram  of  such  apparatus 
as  may  have  been  used ;  and  a  statement  of  results  and  conclusions,  with 
answers  to  any  specific  questions  which  have  arisen.  If  the  pupil's  notes 
cover  this  ground,  they  should  be  accepted,  and  he  should  be  encouraged 
to  work  out  any  plan  of  his  own  for  the  improvement  of  his  notebook. 
To  require  all  to  use  exactly  the  same  plan  may  make  the  checking  of 
notebooks  more  easy  and  their  appearance  more  satisfactory,  but  it  stifles 


26  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY  , 

the  pupil's  originality  and  prevents  him  from  discovering  and  correcting 
his  own  faults  in  this  direction. 

The  notebook  has  often  been  a  fetish  with  chemistry  teachers,  and 
time  has  been  demanded  for  making  a  record  which,  while  beautiful  in 
appearance  and  completeness,  is  yet  full  of  needless  repetition  and  useless 
detail.  The  notebook  should  not  destroy  the  interest  attached  to  an 
experiment,  for  the  experiment  is  not  for  the  notebook  but  for  the 
pupil's  clearer  understanding  of  important  chemical  facts.  Only  when 
properly  used  will  the  notebook  enhance  the  value  of  laboratory  work. 

The  teacher  in  the  laboratory  should  not  set  up  apparatus,  weigh  out 
materials,  or  attend  to  other  purely  manual  matters,  which  in  most  cases 
should  be  done  by  the  pupils.  The  teacher  should  see  that  pupils  are 
trained  to  observe  accurately,  to  draw  correct  inferences,  to  relate  their 
conclusions  to  the  facts  of  previous  experience  in  and  out  of  school,  and 
to  find  the  answers  to  questions  and  problems  brought  out. 

It  is  proper  that  the  teacher  should  perform  laboratory  demonstra- 
tions that  are  too  difficult,  too  costly  in  materials,  or  too  long,  for 
student  assignment.  These  should  be  done  with  model  technique,  for 
the  pupils  will  imitate  the  teacher's  methods.  They  should  be  recorded 
in  the  student's  laboratory  notebook  just  as  any  other  experiment,  but 
with  the  notation  "performed  by  instructor." 

(3)  Aids  to  the  chemistry  teachers. —  (a)  Reference  books  and  maga- 
zines. A  part  of  the  requisite  equipment  of  every  chemistry  department 
is  a  well  chosen  set  of  reference  books,  available  and  in  constant  use. 
Each  pupil  will  need  a  textbook  as  chief  reference  book,  but  he  should 
find  it  necessary  to  use  additional  books.  There  should  be  provided 
duplicate  copies  of  the  better  textbooks,  other  books  on  special  subjects, 
articles,  newspaper  clippings,  etc.  These  books  are  necessary  in  order 
that  the  pupil  may  investigate  all  the  questions  that  arise.  He  will 
profit  by  the  training  which  comes  from  learning  how  to  find  the 
answers  to  his  questions  from  many  sources  of  information.  These 
books  should  provide  entertaining  reading  by  which  the  pupil's  interest 
in  things  chemical  may  be  stimulated  and  developed. 

(b)  Individual  topics  and  reports.     The  study  of  special  topics  and 
reports  upon  them  by  individual  members  should  be  a  regular  feature 
of  the  class  work.     Pupils  should  be  encouraged  along  the  line  of  their 
special  interests,  and  lists  of  topics  should  be  suggested  by  the  teacher 
from  time  to  time.     By  this  plan  individual  initiative  and  ability  may 
be  given  encouragement  and  the  whole  class  stimulated. 

(c)  Optional  experiments.     The  pupils  should  be  given  encourage- 
ment to  bring  in  materials  to  test  in  various  ways  and,  whenever  time 
permits,  to  perform  additional  experiments,  the  results  of  which  may  be 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  27 

reported  to  the  class.  In  the  chemistry  laboratory  it  is  not  necessary 
or  desirable  that  all  pupils  be  always  at  work  on  the  same  experiment. 
Even  if  the  experiment  is  essentially  the  same,  a  variety  of  materials 
may  often  be  used,  and  each  pupil  may  contribute  to  the  general  result. 
For  example,  if  colored  cotton  cloth  is  to  be  bleached  by  chloride  of 
lime,  let  the  pupils  bring  in  samples  from  home  so  that  a  variety  of 
colors  may  be  tried  out ;  or,  if  the  presence  of  coal-tar  dyes  is  to  be  tested 
in  candy  or  food  products,  each  pupil  should  be  responsible  for  his  own 
materials.  In  this  way  the  work  of  the  class  will  have  a  breadth  and 
scope  which  will  make  the  results  more  significant. 

(d)  The  review.     In  chemistry  the  number  of  detailed  facts  is  so 
great,  and  the  application  of  its  principles  so  wide,  that  from  time  to 
time  a  definite  plan  for  insuring  proper  organization  of  ideas  is  needed. 
These  need  not  be  formal  reviews  and  tests,  though  such  have  their 
place,  but  they  should  always  be  exact  and  comprehensive.     Quizzes 
should  frequently  follow  excursions  or  a  series  of  laboratory  experiments 
upon  some  central  topic  of  study.     These  should  be  conducted  in  such 
a  way  as  to  lead  pupils  to  organize  knowledge  for  themselves  rather 
than  to  force  upon  them  a  classification  of  the  material  that  does  not 
develop  from  their  own  work. 

(e)  Excursions.     Many  topics  in  chemistry  should  be  initiated  or 
supplemented  by  an  excursion  to  a  factory  or  industrial  plant  where  the 
operations  may  be  viewed  at  first  hand.     If  such  excursions  are  to  be 
really  profitable,  there  must  be  a  very  definite  plan  covering  the  things 
to   be  seen.     The  first   recitation   after  such   an  excursion   should   be 
devoted  to  answering  questions  suggested  by  what  has  been  seen  and  to 
defining  further  studies  based  upon  these  observations.    The  great  value 
of  the  excursion  lies  in  the  opportunity  to  give  the  pupil  a  vivid  concep- 
tion of  the  practicability  of  chemical  knowledge  and  to  make  him  see 
that  there  is  a  definite  relation  between  the  test  tubes  and  beakers  of 
the  laboratory  and  the  vats,  concentrators,  and  furnaces  of  the  factory. 

(/)  Science  clubs.  Whenever  the  number  of  students  taking  chem- 
istry is  sufficient  to  warrant  the  formation  of  a  chemical  club,  this  is 
desirable.  The  members  of  the  chemistry  class  should  be  encouraged 
to  join  or  organize  a  science  club  and  to  make  it  an  attractive  feature 
of  the  school  life.  In  small  schools  a  science  section  may  be  a  part  of 
a  literary  or  debating  society,  thus  widening  the  interests  served  by  such 
an  organization.  Such  a  club  provides  motive  and  opportunity  for  the 
exercise  of  individual  interest  and  effort,  and  the  interest  of  the  whole 
school  may  be  extended  through  it. 

Specific  principles  controlling  reorganization. — 1.  Larger  units  of 
study. — The  number  of  important  principles  and  facts  in  chemistry  is 


28  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

so  great  that  there  is  grave  danger  that  many  topics  will  remain  isolated 
and  unorganized  in  the  mind  of  the  student.  Reorganization  should 
develop  larger  units  of  study  connected  by  and  emphasizing  natural 
relationships. 

(a)  These  larger  units  of  study  should  be  presented  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  appeal  to  the  pupil  personally. 

Interest  is  not  likely  to  be  aroused  if  the  more  important  elements 
are  taken  up  in  the  order  suggested  by  the  periodic  system.  It  is  equally 
destructive  of  enthusiasm  to  use  one  unvarying  plan  of  study  with  every 
element,  as  occurrence,  physical  and  chemical  properties,  methods  of 
obtaining,  uses,  important  compounds,  etc. 

(b)  The  selection  of  these  large  topics  should  not  be  handicapped  by 
the  traditional  content  of  the  course.     Traditional  divisions  should  be 
retained  only  when  they  are  found  to  aid  the  pupil  in  making  his  own 
organization  of  the  facts  and  principles  involved. 

Such  topics  should  show  many  cross  relationships,  necessitating  the 
use  of  information  previously  gained  in  new  situations  and  serving  to 
fuse  all  into  an  organic  whole.  Thus,  sudden  leaps  into  absolutely  new 
material  would  be  avoided  or  at  least  greatly  reduced. 

As  an  illustration,  the  interesting,  unified,  and  vitally  significant 
topic  of  fertilizers  can  be  developed  out  of  information  usually  supplied 
under  such  isolated  headings  as  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  sodium, 
calcium,  sulphur,  carbon,  etc. 

(r)  Certain  topics  of  chemistry  cover  wide  fields.  The  large  topic 
is  valuable  because  it  shows  broad  relations  and  secures  the  right  sort 
of  organization  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  Neutralization,  hydrolysis, 
oxidation,  etc.,  are  examples  of  such  topics,  which  are  constantly  recur- 
ring in  new  phases  and  which  should  be  brought  out  not  once  but  many 
times. 

2.  Laws  and  theories. — A  chemical  law  or  theory  should  be  taught 
as  a  generalization,  justified  by  experimental  data,  or  as  a  device  to 
explain  things  that  the  pupil  is  eager  to  understand.  Likewise,  chemical 
'mathematics  should  be  developed  through  problems  arising  from  the 
laboratory  work  or  through  practical  problems  that  the  chemist  is  called 
upon  to  solve  in  everyday  situations. 

Content. — Different  introductory  courses  in  chemistry  contain  much 
in  common  in  that  they  deal  with  fundamental  facts,  concepts,  laws, 
and  theories,  but  the  teaching  of  these  fundamentals  must  be  influenced 
by  the  particular  conditions  and  purposes  which  control  in  the  individual 
school.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  committee  to  lay  out  the  work  in 
detail  or  to  offer  a  syllabus,  but  to  suggest  by  a  few  type  topics  the 
character  of  the  organization  recommended.  These  have  been  selected 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  29 

solely  as  illustrations,  and  no  sequence  is  implied  by  the  order  in  which 
they  appear  here. 

1.  The  atmosphere.     (A  sample  introductory  topic.)  —  (a)   Physical 
properties.     Recall,  or  perform  demonstration  experiments  to  show,  that 
air  possesses  weight,  exerts  pressure,  expands  when  heated,  and  is  com- 
pressible.    Demonstrate  diffusion  of  gases  by  spilling  ammonia.     De- 
velopment in  simple  way  of  kinetic  molecular  hypothesis  as  basis  for 
explanation.      Demonstration    experiments    to    illustrate    Boyle's    and 
Charles's  laws,  if  needed. 

(b)  Air   and   burning.      How   does   a  candle   burn?     Structure   of 
flame:  Products  of  combustion,  identification  of  water  by  condensation, 
soot  by  deposit  on  cold  objects,  and  carbon  dioxide  by  reaction  with 
lime  water.      (Water  may  be  electrolyzed  to  show   its  composition.) 
Definitions    of    element,    compound,    mixture,    and    chemical    changes. 
Fuels:  Composed  chiefly  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.     Prove  by  burning 
coal,  gasoline,  kerosene,  gas,  wood,  etc.     Luminosity  of  flame  due  to 
carbon.     Kindling  temperature. 

(c)  Oxygen.     Laboratory  study  of  oxygen   and  burning  in  oxygen 
contrasted  with  that  in  air.    Action  on  metals. 

(d)  Composition  of  air.    Analysis,  using  phosphorus  and  iron  filings. 
Residual  nitrogen  tested  for  effect  on  combustion.     Nitrogen  as  diluting 
material  in  air.     Is  it  fortunate  air  is  not  all  oxygen? 

(e)  Other  questions  to  be  considered  or  used   for  assignment  pur- 
poses: How  was  oxygen  discovered?     How  abundant  is  it?     How  are 
rusting  and  decay  different  from  burning?     How  is  spontaneous  com- 
bustion caused?     What  precautions  should  be  used  to  avoid  it?     Why 
is  perfect  combustion   desirable   in    furnaces   and   steam-power   plants? 
Why  is  imperfect  combustion  dangerous  in  stoves  or  grates?    Oxyacety- 
lene  process  for  welding  and  cutting.     How  is  oxygen   prepared  for 
commercial  purposes?     Oxygen   as  necessary  to  life.     Ventilation   for 
health  and  comfort.     Corrosion  of  metals,  causes  and  prevention. 

2.  Purification    of    water. —  (a)    Importance    of    the    question    from 
standpoint  of  health  and  industry. 

(b)  Common  impurities  and  their  removal:  Sedimentation  and  filtra- 
tion for  suspended  matter;  boiling  to  destroy  bacteria;  coagulation  to 
remove  sediment  and  bacteria  (use  alum  and  lime  water)  ;  distillation 
to    remove    dissolved    minerals;    chlorination    with    bleaching    powder 
(chloride   of    lime;   add   solution  of   bleaching   powder   to   water   and 
taste)  ;  tests  for  sulphates,  chlorides,  calcium  compounds,  and  organic 
matters;  laboratory  testing  of  spring  and  mineral  waters  collected  by 
pupils. 

(c)  How  cities  get  pure  water:  Protecting  the  catch  basin    (New 


30 


TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 


York)  ;  sedimentation  and  filtration  methods  (St.  Louis)  ;  coagulation 
and  precipitation  method  (Columbus)  ;  demonstration  experiments  to 
illustrate;  excursion  to  local  pumping  station  and  study  of  system  of 
purification  employed. 

(d)  Soft  and  hard  water,  temporary  and  permanent  varieties;  effect 
of  hard  water  in  tubes  of  steam  boilers   (specimens  of  boiler  scales)  ; 
why  a  laundry  needs  soft  water;  action  of  hard  water  on  soap;  soften- 
ing  power   of   borax,   ammonia,   soda,   soap,   and  washing  powder   of 
various  brands. 

(e)  Sewage  disposal:  Relation  to  pure  water  supply  of  other  cities 
or  communities;  dilution  method   (Chicago  drainage  canal)  ;  oxidation 
methods    (spraying,   activated  sludge)  ;   methods   for  small   towns   and 
rural  homes;  the  septic  tank. 

3.  Limestone,  lime,  and  allied  products. —  (This  topic  is  developed 
in  considerable  detail,  suggesting  a  possible  plan  for  correlating  labora- 
tory and  classroom  work,  excursions,  and  individual  reports,  and  show- 
ing how  drill  in  equation  writing  and  problem  solving  may  naturally 
arise.) 


IN    THE    LABORATORY. 

1.  Excursion  to  limestone  bluff  or 
quarry.      Collection    and    display    of 
limestone    fossils.      Observe,    on    the 
way,   any   limestone   or   marble   used 
in  buildings.     Visit  limekiln  and  hy- 
drating  plant  if  possible. 

2.  Note  texture,  solubility,  reaction 
to   moist   litmus,    and   effect   of   acid 
on  a  limestone  lump.    Heat  the  lump, 
note  changes  in  the  above  properties. 

3.  Using   quicklime,    note    heat   on 
solution,  reaction  to  litmus,  etc.   Pour 
the  following  mixtures  in  the  form  of 
thick  pastes,   into   match-box   molds : 
(1)    Lime  and  water;    (2)    lime  and 
sand  and  water;    (3)   lime,  sand,  ce- 
ment,   and    water.      Allow    to    stand 
until  hardened.    Examine  these  speci- 
mens for  suitability  as  mortar.     Test 
these  specimens,  also  old  mortar,  with 
acid.      Test    evolved    gas.      Examine 
both  in  place  and  as  laboratory  speci- 
mens,    samples    of    mortar,    plaster, 
concrete,   reinforced  concrete. 


IN    THE    CLASSROOM. 

1.  Discussion    and    explanation    of 
the  mode  of  limestone  deposit.     Ob- 
servation of  fossil  shells,  corals,  skel- 
etons.     Reference    to    geology    text. 
Study     of     metamorphic     limestone 
(marble)    and    uses    of    marble    and 
limestone   in   buildings. 

2.  Discuss  visit  to  limekiln,  or  use 
diagrams.      Describe    use    of    "lime- 
light" in  stereopticons,  etc.     Deriva- 
tion of  the  phrase  "to  seek  the  lime- 
light." 

3.  Make  sure  that  the  students  can 
write  equations,  and  fully  understand 
the    chemical    reactions    from    lime- 
stone, calcium  carbonate  as  quarried, 
to    calcium    carbonate    as    the    final 
product  in  mortar  or  concrete.     Pre- 
pare and  discuss  the  following  special 
reports :     "Manufacture    of    lime    in 
large    quantities ;"    "Manufacture    of 
hydrated  lime;"  "The  use  of  lime  as 
a    disinfectant;"    "The    use    of    lime 
(limewater)    in    medicine;"    "Use   of 
lime    in    whitewash ;"     "Source    and 
manufacture    of    cement;"    "The    use 
of  mortar  and  concrete  in  the  con- 
struction of  walks,  buildings,  bridges, 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS. 


31 


4.  Note  properties  of  a  piece  of  na- 
tive   gypsum.     Heat    a    crystal,    note 
water  driven  off  and  change  in  form. 
Pour  thick  paste  of  plaster  of  Paris 
into  a  match  box,  and  press   into  it 
some  object  such  as  a  nut,  small  brass 
ornament,  or   small  clay  model,  pre- 
viously   greased    with    vaseline.      Let 
paste  harden  thoroughly. 

5.  Test    the    solubility    of    a    lime- 
stone   lump    in    (a)    distilled    water; 

(b)  rain  water;    (c)    distilled  water 
into  which   carbon   dioxide  has  been 
passed  to  acidity.    Filter  and  test  for 
calcium     with     ammonium     oxalate. 
Pass  breath  through  limewater.   Burn 
a    splint   in   a   bottle,   add   limewater, 
and     shake.       Pass     carbon     dioxide 
through   limewater   until   the   precipi- 
tate  is  redissolved. 

6.  Shake  any  of  above  solutions  in 
which   some   limestone   has   dissolved 
with   soap   solution,   adding   drop   by 
drop.      Prepare    the    following    sam- 
ples:   (a)  Distilled  water;  (b)  bubble 
carbon    dioxide    through    water,    and 
shake   with   ground   limestone,   filter; 

(c)  add  several   drops   of   saturated 
calcium   sulphate   solution   to   water; 

(d)  hydrant  water.     To  one-third  of 
each    add     soap     solution     (approxi- 
mately  Clarke's   standard)    from  bu- 
rette  and    record  amount  needed   to 
form   suds.     Boil   one-third   of   each 
vigorously.     Observe  any  precipitate. 
Filter  and  add  soap  solution  as  be- 
fore.    To   one-third   of  each   add   a 
few    cc.    of    washing    soda    solution, 
then  soap  solution  as  before. 

Test  the  effect  of  other  softening 
agents — ammonia,  borax,  lime,  com- 
mercial softening  agents,  and  boiler 
preparations. 


posts,  pipes,  tile,  furniture ;"  "The 
proportions  of  different  ingredients, 
the  erection  and  filling  of  forms, 
mixing  machines,  etc. — the  reports  of 
an  interview  with  a  practical  plas- 
terer, and  concrete  foreman;"  "Arti- 
ficial building  stone." 

4.  Discuss    occurrence    of    gypsum. 
Equations    for    heating    gypsum    and 
for  setting  of  plaster  of  Paris.     Pre- 
pare   and     discuss     special    reports : 
"Manufacture  of  plaster  of  Paris"  on 
a   large   scale;    "Uses    of   plaster   of 
Paris  in  molds,  statuary,  for  broken 
bones,  white  coat   for  plaster,   etc.;" 
"Manufacture  and  uses  of  calcimine." 

5.  Discuss  solubility  of  limestone  in 
carbonated    rain    water.      Special    re- 
port:  "The   formation   of  caves   and 
sink     holes;"     "The     formation     of 
stalactites     and     stalagmites."       The 
limewater    test    for    carbon    dioxide. 
Equations   for  these  processes. 


6.  Discussion  of  temporary  and  per- 
manent hardness.  Methods  of  soften- 
ing each.  Complete  set  of  equations. 
(This  is  an  excellent  exercise  on 
interpretation  of  results.)  Require 
special  reports:  "Household  expe- 
rience in  the  use  of  river  and  spring 
water  in  washing  and  cooking;"  "The 
use  of  hard  water  in  boilers"  (illus- 
trated with  specimens  of  boiler 
scale)  ;  "Comparative  cost  of  soften- 
ing water  with  different  agents,  in- 
. eluding  soap;"  "What  are  commer- 
cial softening  agents  composed  of?" 

It  is  believed  that  the  softening 
power  of  washing  soda  is  more  logi- 
cally discussed  under  this  heading 
than  in  the  chapter  on  "Sodium,"  and 
that  "Hardness  of  water"  should  be 
treated  in  detail  here  unless  included 
in  such  a  topic  as  the  "Purification 
of  water,"  previously  outlined.  At 
any  rate,  the  cross  reference  should 
be  made,  the  facts  reviewed,  and  the 
principles  extended  to  the  new  topic. 


32  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

7.  Test  solubility  of  powdered  7.  Special  reports  and  discussions: 

limestone  in  weak  acids — dilute  hy-  "What  causes  acid  soils?"  "What 

drochloric,  carbonic,  citric.  crops  will  not  grow  in  acid  soils?" 

Test  soil  in  a  swampy  place  for  "The  use  of  ground  limestone  (and 

acidity,  sprinkle  with  powdered  lime-  plaster)  on  acid  soil ;"  "An  interview 

stone  and  test  several  days  later.  with  a  progressive  farmer  or  fertil- 

Extract  soil  with  HC1 — burn  bones  izer  salesman  on  method  of  calculat- 

and  extract  ash  with  HC1— coagulate  ing  the  amount  of  limestone  needed 

milk,  filter — and  test  all  filtrates  for  per  acre  of  soil;"  "The  presence  of 

calcium  with  ammonium  oxalate.  calcium  compounds  in  plant  and  ani- 

Examine  face  powder,  testing  for  mal  tissues ;"  "Use  of  powdered  lime- 
chalk  or  gypsum.  stone  for  miscellaneous  purposes." 

Examine  blackboard  crayon. 

4.  Simple  inorganic  preparations. — The  introduction  of  simple  in- 
organic preparations  to  the  laboratory  work  of  the  second  half  of  the 
year  furnishes  every  desirable  opportunity  for  the  bright  pupil  to  test 
his  ability.  It  gives  him  a  chance  to  do  extra  work,  learn  additional 
chemistry,  and  gain  considerable  skill  in  manipulation.  The  materials 
for  this  work  include:  Copper  sulphate  from  copper  scraps;  copper 
nitrate  as  by-product  from  preparation  of  nitric  oxide;  ammonium- 
copper  sulphate  from  copper  sulphate;  mercurous  nitrate  and  mercuric 
nitrate  from  mercury;  boric  acid  from  borax;  zinc  sulphate  as  a  by- 
product of  the  preparation  of  hydrogen;  sodium  thiosulphate  from 
sodium  sulphate;  mercuric  sulphocyanide  from  mercuric  nitrate;  zinc 
oxide  from  zinc  sulphate;  and  potassium  nitrate  from  wood  ashes. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  pupils  are  greatly  interested  in 
such  experiments  and  spend  many  hours  willingly  in  completing  these 
preparations. 

The  committee  does  not  desire  to  outline  other  topics  in  detail,  since 
too  much  elaboration  might  tend  to  retard  rather  than  stimulate  the 
proper  reorganization  of  the  chemistry  course.  The  following  list  is 
added  to  show  a  great  variety  of  interesting  topics  which  may  be  drawn 
upon  for  illustrative  and  informational  purposes  and  for  developing  the 
fundamental  generalizations  of  chemistry.  Local  conditions,  the  interest 
and  needs  of  the  particular  class,  and  the  time  available  should  deter- 
mine the  choice  of  such  topics  and  their  proper  organization  into  the 
larger  units  of  study.  The  following  list  could  be  greatly  extended: 

Glass. — Crown,  flint,  lead,  special  glasses,  coloring  of  glass. 

Clay  products. — Brick,  pottery,  chinaware,  porcelain. 

Artificial  stone. — Lime,  plaster,  mortar,  hydraulic  cement,  concrete  stucco, 
plaster  of  paris. 

Fertilizers. — Problems  of  soil  fertility,  elements  needed  by  growing  plant  and 
function  of  each.  Photosynthesis  and  carbon  dioxide  cycle.  Nitrogen  cycle 
and  function  of  nitrogen  fertilizers.  Use  of  limestone  and  phosphate  rock. 

Coal. — Composition  and  fuel  values  of  different  varieties.    Distillation  of  coal 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.  33 

tar,  light  oil,  middle  oil,  heavy  oil,  tar,  pitch.    Relation  to  dyes  and  explosives. 

Petroleum. — Fractional  distillation  into  burning  oils,  solvent  oils,  lubricants, 
paraffins.  Problem  of  gasoline  supply  and  possible  exhaustion  of  petroleum. 

Wood. — Distillation  of  wood  to  produce  methyl  alchol,  acetone,  acetic  acid, 
charcoal. 

Explosives. — Black  powder,  nitroglycerine,  dynamite,  guncotton,  trinitro- 
toluene. Relation  to  nitrogen  fixation  by  arc,  Haber,  and  cyanide  processes. 

Paint,  varnish,  etc. — Oil  paints  and  driers,  varnish,  shellac,  copal.  Linseed 
oil,  oilcloth,  linoleum. 

Pigments. — White  lead,  red  lead,  iron  oxide,  lead  chromate,  etc. 

Textile  fibers. — Natural  and  artificial  silk.  Wool :  Scouring,  bleaching,  felt- 
ing, etc.  Cotton :  Bleaching,  mercerizing,  etc. 

Dyeing. — Direct  and  mordant  dyes. 

Cleansing  agents. — By  acid :  Oxalic,  hydrochloric.  By  alkalies  :  Caustic  soda, 
soap  emulsification.  By  special  solvents :  Carbon  tetrachlorid,  benzene.  Com- 
position of  trade-marked  cleaning  fluids. 

Photography. — Blue  prints,  plates,  films,  prints,  toning,  etc. 

Food  constituents. — Starch  preparations  from  corn ;  cooking :  to  dextrin  and 
to  paste,  hydrolysis  to  glucose. 

Sugars. — Preparation  and  refining  of  beet  and  cane  varieties;  conversion  to 
caramel ;  inversion. 

Fats. — Olive  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  butter,  oleomargarine,  hardening  oils  by 
hydrogenation. 

Proteins. — Albumins,  casein,  gluten,  peptones,  gelatines,  vitamines. 

Beverages. — Charged  waters,  soda,  mineral,  infusions,  tea,  coffee,  chocolate. 

Fruit  juices   (artificial  flavors),  fermentation. 

Poisons  and  common  antidotes. — Common  inorganic  drugs. 

Leavening  agents. — Yeast,  soda,   baking  powders. 

Matches. — Ordinary  and  safety  types. 

Adhesives. — Gums,  paste,  dextrin,  glue,  casein,  water  glass  (sodium  silicate). 

Inks. — Various  types. 

Re fus_e. disposal.— Sewerage,  garbage,;  fermentation  and  putrefaction;  civic 
problems;  disinfectants  and  deodorizing  agents. 

Preserving. — Sterilizing,  pasteurizing,  desiccating,  pickling  by  salt  and 
sugar;  chemical  preservatives  and  tests  for  them. 

Metals. — Extraction  processes;  oxide  ore,  iron,  sulfid  ore,  lead;  electrolysis, 
sodium  and  aluminum ;  extraction  of  other  metals  may  be  studied  by  compar- 
ison with  these. 

Metals  used  for  basic  purposes,  iron,  copper,  aluminum,  lead ;  for  ornament, 
gold,  silver,  nickel;  for  alloys,  bronze,  brass,  solder,  type  metal,  antifriction 
or  bearing  metals,  fusible  metal. 

Differentiated  chemistry  courses  for  certain  curriculums. — The  con- 
tent of  the  regular  course  in  chemistry  has  been  indicated  in  the  two 
sections  just  preceding.  It  is  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  young 
people  and  to  enable  such  as  need  it  to  count  the  work  done  for  college 
entrance.  It  remains  to  show  how  modified  chemistry  courses  may  be 
offered  to  meet  the  requirements  of  special  groups  of  pupils  by  includ- 
ing topics  and  problems  bearing  more  directly  on  the  work  these  pupils 
will  enter  or  in  which  they  are  already  engaged.  These  differentiated 


34  TREASURE  HUNTING  OF  TODAY 

courses  are  chiefly  of  two  types,  those  which  aim  to  better  prepare  girls 
for  home  making  and  home  management  and  those  offered  in  technical 
curriculums  to  suit  the  needs  of  students  primarily  interested  in  indus- 
try. These  two  types  are  briefly  considered. 

1.  Courses    in    household   or    domestic    chemistry. — There    are    two 
methods  which  are  followed  in  teaching  household  or  domestic  chem- 
istry.    Girls  may  be  taught  the  regular  chemistry  the  first  half  of  the 
year  and  the  second  half  they  may  be  given  instruction  in  topics  relating 
directly  to  the  home,  or  a  year's  course  in  household  chemistry  may  be 
given.    Each  school  should  choose  the  method  best  adapted  to  its  organi- 
zation.    If  a  year's  course  of  household  chemistry   is  given,  the  first 
half  should  emphasize  the  study  of  chemical  change,  combustion,  water, 
air,  acids,  bases,  salts,  and  chemical  formulas.     In  the  second  half  tb° 
following  topics   should   be   emphasized:    Carbon   compounds   in    their 
relation  to  fuels,  cooking,  and  foods;  metals  used  in  the  home,  as  iron, 
copper,  aluminum,  and  silver;  textiles  and  cleaning  agents;  dyeing  and 
removal  of  stains;  fertilizers  and  insecticides;  disinfectants  and  anti- 
septics; poisons  and  their  antidotes;  paints  and  varnishes. 

2.  Courses  in  technical  curriculum. — In  many  technical  curriculums 
there  is  a  demand  for  a  two  or  three  years'  course  in  chemistry.     In 
such  cases  the  elementary  course  is  given  in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  year, 
followed  by  qualitative  analysis  and  organic  chemistry.     Some  teachers 
may  prefer  to  give  in  the  second  year  a  half  year  of  advanced  general 
chemistry  and  a  half  year  of  qualitative  analysis.     In  addition  to  these, 
special  courses  for  certain  types  of  students  should  be  offered  if  there 
are  facilities  and  if  there  is  sufficient  demand  for  the  work.     To  illus- 
trate, a  few  courses  which  have  been  successfully  tried  in  the  continua- 
tion and  evening  classes  of  a  large  technical  high  school  are  described: 

(a)  Chemistry  for  nurses:  Girls  who  study  nursing  find  it  of  great 
advantage  to  know  something  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  chem- 
istry.    Many  of  the  girls  have  not  completed  a  high  school  course  and 
have  not  studied  chemistry.     For  such  girls  a  special  course  consisting 
of  laboratory  work  and  discussion  two  afternoons  a  week  for  13  weeks 
is   given.      This   course   covers   elementary   chemistry    through    carbon 
compounds,  and  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  study  of  substances  used  as 
drugs  and  in  the  home. 

(b)  Chemistry  for  electroplaters :  A  large  percentage  of  men  actually 
engaged  in  the  electroplating  of  metals  have  only  a  common   school 
education,  and  their  work  is  done  mechanically.    Without  a  knowledge 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  chemistry  and  electricity  the  men  find 
much  difficulty  in  solving  their  problems.     To  remedy  this  condition 
the  National  Society  of  Electroplaters  has  been  organized.     At  least 


AND  CHEMISTRY  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS.    .  35 

one  technical  high  school  has  been  cooperating  with  this  organization 
the  past  two  years.  A  special  class  for  electroplaters  has  been  conducted 
in  the  evening  school.  The  men  study  elementary  chemistry,  electricity, 
and  volumetric  analysis  and  discuss  their  problems  with  the  instructor. 
The  students  are  very  enthusiastic  over  the  course  and  they  have  become 
more  intelligent  and  skilled  workers. 

(c)  Chemistry  for  pharmacy:  Some  high  schools  offer  a  course  in 
pharmacy.     For  this  purpose  a  three-year  course  in  chemistry  is  desir- 
able.    The   first   year   the   pupils   study   elementary   chemistry,   which 
differs  from  the  regular  course  by  emphasis  on  technique,  preparation 
of    tinctures    and   ointments,    the   study   of    drug   manufacturing,    and 
chemical  arithmetic.     Qualitative   analysis  is  studied  the  second  year, 
quantitative  analysis  and  organic  chemistry  the  third  year. 

(d)  Special  courses  for  workmen  and  foremen  in  chemical  industries: 
^ome  manufacturers  permit  their  employees  to  study  in  technical  high 
schools  for  one  afternoon  a  week  in  order  to  make  them  more  intelligent 
workers.     The  chemistry  course  in  these  cases  is  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  individuals.     Where  facilities  permit  there  is  opportunity  for 
great  service  to  the  men   and  the  community.     A  course   in  simple, 
inorganic  preparations  such  as  ammonium,  sodium,  and  potassium  com- 
pounds,   is   valuable    to    teach    in    connection    with    or    following    the 
elementary  course. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROW 
LOAN  DEFT. 


Renewed  books  are  subject  to 


General  Library    . 
University  of  California 
Berkeley 


